The chapter presents an overview of current and recent research concerning the phonetics and phonology of adult second language (L2) learners in classroom settings, summarizing key findings and suggesting future research directions. In this context, classroom learners are defined as college-age individuals who are immersed in their first language (L1) and whose L2 learning is limited to the instructional environment of college or university classes. The survey deliberately prioritizes studies that utilize instrumental acoustic analysis or controlled perceptual experiments to assess the phonetic and phonological abilities of L2 learners. Although not aiming for an exhaustive review, the chapter explores the following major themes in the surveyed research literature: the role of L2 input quantity and quality, the influence of different phonological targets, the impact of explicit pronunciation instruction and corrective feedback, the extent and implications of individual differences, and the significance of L2 phonetic category formation and L1 restructuring in the classroom-based acquisition of L2 phonetics and phonology.

In previous research, we considered several novel problems posed by robot accidents and assessed related legal and economic approaches to the creation of optimal incentives for robot manufacturers, operators, and prospective victims. In this chapter, we synthesize our previous work in a unified analysis. We begin with a discussion about the problems and legal challenges posed by robot torts. Next, we describe the novel liability regime we proposed, that is, “manufacturer residual liability,” which blends negligence-based rules and strict manufacturer liability rules to create optimal incentives for robot torts. This regime makes operator and victim liability contingent upon their negligence (incentivizing them to act diligently) and makes manufacturers residually liable for nonnegligent accidents (incentivizing them to make optimal investments in researching safer technologies). This rule has the potential to drive unsafe technology out of the market and also to incentivize operators to adopt optimal activity levels in their use of automated technologies.

Humans categorize themselves and others on the basis of many attributes forging a range of social groups. Such group identities can influence our perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors toward others and ourselves. While decades of psychological research has examined how dividing the world into “us” and “them” impacts our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors toward others, a new and emerging area of research considers how humans can ascribe social group memberships to humanoid robots. Specifically, our social perceptions and evaluations of humanoids can be shaped by subtle characteristics about the robot’s appearance or other features, particularly if these characteristics are interpreted through the lens of important human group identities. The current chapter reviews research on the psychology of intergroup relations to consider its manifestations and expressions in the context of human–robot interaction. We first consider how robots despite being nonliving can be ascribed certain identities (e.g., race, gender, and national origin). We then consider how this can in turn impact attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors toward such technology. Given the nascency of this field of study, we highlight existing gaps in our knowledge and highlight important directions for future research. The chapter concludes by considering the societal, market, and legal implications of bias in the context of human–robot interaction.

Over the last years there has been growing research interest in religion within the robotics community. Along these lines, this chapter will provide a case study of the ‘religious robot’ SanTO, which is the world’s first robot designed to be ‘Catholic’. This robot was created with the aim of exploring the theoretical basis for the application of robot technology in the religious space. While the application of this technology has many potential benefits for users, the use and design of religious or other social robots raises a number of ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI). This paper, which is concerned with such issues will start with a general introduction, offer an ELSI analysis, and finally develop conclusions from an ethical design perspective.

The First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution protects “the freedom of speech.” Courts have also said it protects “freedom of thought.” But does that mean we have a right to speak with or listen to the speech of robots? Does it mean we have a First Amendment right to recruit robots to help us think or change the way we think? By “robots” here, I mean the robots that are the primary focus of this book: Humanoid robots that might not only emulate the way we solve intellectual challenges or express ourselves, but also emulate us physically – by taking on a physical form similar to that of human beings and moving and acting in the physical space of our homes, workplaces, or other spaces, and not simply the virtual space on our computers.

This essay explores the role of the dictionary in religious history, specifically as a conduit of social and intellectual authority brought to bear in religious interpretation, sitting both upstream and downstream of the broader flow of history, culture, and forms of knowledge. Of particular interest is the history of three categories of reference works: the bilingual dictionary (or lexicon) focused on ancient biblical languages; the Bible dictionary, focused on biblical realia, geography, and similar topics; and the theological dictionary, focused on significant biblical ideas associated with particular words or the ancient speakers. The categories are situated historically in the development of biblical scholarship and philology in the West, from the pre-modern era through the contemporary and digital context. Two case studies demonstrate the intersection between dictionaries, biblical interpretation, and cultural ideologies: use of Bible dictionaries and lexicons in the antebellum period as a tool for attacking or defending slavery on biblical grounds in the American South; and the influence on theological dictionaries in the early twentieth century from the anti-Semitic context of Nazi Germany.

The chapter argues that to create consumer trust requires technologically neutral rules of consumer and data protection law. The limited impact of the established rules on digital markets raises the question about the need for reform. The chapter focuses on personalised advertising as our case study. Regulation by design is the best method of weaker parties.

Recommender systems (RSs) are one of the most important examples of how AI can be used to improve the experience of consumers, as well as to increase revenues for companies. The chapter presents a short survey of the main approaches. The manipulation of consumer behavior by RCs is less a legal issue, then an ethical one, which should be considered when designing these type of systems

This chapter argues that AI can be a positive force in consumer protection enforcement, although in its current form, it has a limited range. If not used with adequate caution and safeguards or understanding of its limitations, it could lead to under-enforcement. Enforcement authorities are encouraged not to reach for AI solutions first but reflect on the best strategy for including AI-enabled technology in their enforcement toolbox.

The terms linguistics and philology refer to different but overlapping areas of the Humanities. An opposition between them does not predate the triumph of structuralism. Structuralist linguistics devoted itself mainly to synchrony and theory, with lexicology and lexicography ending up in no-man’s land. A detailed look at dictionary definitions of linguistics and philology for more than three centuries offers a picture of the goals of both disciplines and of the ways the public understood language studies. Before the twentieth century, the focus of philology was the interpretation of old texts and word origins. The treatment of special terminology (including the terminology of linguistics) in dictionaries shows that despite all the differences a clear line between linguistics and philology cannot and need not be drawn, just as such a line cannot always be drawn between a dictionary and an encyclopedia. In the context of the present study, the use of etymology and phonetic transcription in various dictionaries illuminates the difference between and the unity of philology and linguistics.

Dictionaries participate in the “real world,” which means they are subject to legal and ethical issues relevant across professional and commercial fields. Among the legal issues, dictionaries are intellectual products and are themselves intellectual property that draws on others’ intellectual property. Thus, dictionaries encounter copyright and trademark challenges: they incorporate material under copyright or trademark protection, and they have their own copyrights and trademarks to protect. Among ethical issues, recognition afforded those who make dictionaries figures prominently, as in the history of dictionaries, many of those involved in their making were abandoned to anonymity. Recently, intelligent dictionary readers have noticed cultural biases in dictionary entries, in the language used to define words, for instance, or labeling and other assertions of value embedded in dictionary structure. Some have boycotted dictionaries over such ethical lapses and dictionaries have responded, constructing a new ethical relationship between makers and readers of dictionaries.

Far from being cut-down versions of the adult form, children’s dictionaries constitute a distinct genre with their own history and methodology. The chapter charts the development of children’s dictionaries, from Renaissance bilingual dictionaries to the present day, showing how they have evolved to reflect changing perceptions of childhood. It discusses the bewildering range of dictionaries now available for children as they progress from ABCs and picture dictionaries to those for school use and creative writing, including innovative subgenres based on fictional worlds and dictionaries supporting language revitalisation. Drawing on historical and contemporary examples, the chapter explores content and page design adapted to engage young readers. It considers how lexicographers aim to reflect the world as experienced by children, from the selection of headwords to the framing of definitions, using dedicated corpora and reading programmes. The tension between descriptive and prescriptive approaches is often acute in children’s dictionaries, for example over the inclusion of slang and taboo words, and lexicographers aim to balance young dictionary users’ needs against adult perceptions of what a children’s dictionary is for.

Genesis and development of EFL learner’s dictionaries, innovative methods and features, and influence on dictionaries in other genres. Pioneering examples (NMED, GEW, ISED) featured simple definition, un/countability, verb patterns, collocations, ample examples, pictorial illustrations, IPA, etc., and paved the path for learner’s dictionaries to come; later generations of learner’s dictionaries converged into corpus basis and towards user-friendliness. Innovative and distinctive features include grading of headword importance, transparent grammar indication, signposts/menus for polysemous entries, controlled defining vocabulary, full-sentence definitions, and extensive use of corpora (manifest in frequency-based sense ordering, identification of frequent grammatical and lexical collocations, authentic illustrative examples). Features of English learner’s dictionaries are now incorporated in dictionaries for native speakers, and English learner’s dictionaries and English–Japanese dictionaries have been mutually influential. The evolution and innovation of learner’s dictionaries are mainly motivated by EFL learners’ needs for comprehension and production, driven by users’ rudimentary reference skills, and influenced by digital technology.