Chapter 4 opens Part II of the study with an overview of literary activity during the late ninth and early tenth centuries, and the political backdrop of the emergent kingdom of the Anglo-Saxons. A summary of the kingdom of the Anglo-Saxons itself is provided, followed by discussion of three categories of evidence: epistolary correspondences, the corpus of Alfredian Old English literature, and Asser’s Life of King Alfred. Throughout, several points of continuity with earlier decades of literary activity are stressed, particularly the continued importance of letter-writing and international communication. It is also emphasised that contemporary investment in vernacular literary production was extraordinary, yet Latin remained a valued commodity as well. Just as there would have been competing political visions within the kingdom of the Anglo-Saxons, so too there would have been preferences for literary patronage of Latin or Old English. The decision specifically to compose the Life of King Alfred in Latin is assessed, particularly in light of Asser’s intended audiences. The overview provided by this chapter sets the scene for the case studies explored in the subsequent two chapters.

The fourth chapter concerns a key institution in Shiʿism’s reproduction, namely its system of higher learning. Two British institutes that long defined the field in Europe are focused on and compared with a flagship German seminary and other, especially Scandinavian cases. Two theoretical trends are contrasted: of ‘integrative blending’ in studies of Islam in Europe and ‘diversity challenge’ in the field of education and citizenship. Each perspective is traced in Shiʿite higher education, where they produce a paradox of local adjustment and foreign frames. Birmingham’s Al-Mahdi Institute and London’s Islamic College are each read for manifestations of ‘European Islam,’ seen in curricula rebalanced with secular topics; diversity engagement perceived as an Islamic challenge; or ambitions for Western contributions to ‘minorities jurisprudence.’ At the same time, the locally particular practice is led by a cultural logic of transnational religious organization. ‘Western’ Shiʿite seminaries are encompassed as their Dumontian ‘contrary’ within organizational hierarchies of ‘Eastern’ religious (state) education. In the continental European seminaries, these facts show in the outsized role of the Qom-based Al-Mustafa University and its emphasis on proselytizing as opposed to the local formation of independent scholars who might help reform Shiʿism.

This chapter explores issues of patent infringement and sustainability, with a focus on the case of destruction of infringing goods and contextualizing the analysis in relation to the practice of upcycling. The destruction is a corrective measure adopted by courts when a patentee is confronted with an infringing product or a product resulting from an infringing method of production (Article 64(2)(e) of the UPC Agreement). While this remedy is standard practice, it often results in the destruction of fully functional, high-quality – albeit infringing – goods. In view of the Unified Patent Court (UPC) and the Unitary Patent (UP), it is imperative to look at the provision on destruction of infringing goods through the eyes of sustainability. The UPC Agreement neither bars sustainable alternatives to destruction nor offers a sustainability-focused interpretation of the remedy. After reviewing UPC and EU case law, the chapter explores more sustainable interpretations of the destruction remedy, including whether practices like upcycling might still qualify as ‘destruction’. As such, this chapter could serve as a guide for future, more sustainability-centred interpretations of the identified provision under the UPC, thereby better aligning European patent law with the goals of the EU Circular Economy Strategy and the Green Deal.

The conclusion summarizes chapter findings and brings them in mutual conversation. This is focused on assessing the nature of integration in Shiʿite-European interactions, substantiating the thesis on European Shiʿism, of peripheral engagement and religious retention. Assimilation defined in the introduction as a negative value distribution for cultural maintenance and outgroup relations (following Berry’s model) has few empirical referents among Shiʿite organizations in Europe, while segregation – assessing outgroup relations negatively and cultural maintenance positively - was associated with a particular historical moment. Integration, to the contrary - where both variables are positively valued or pursued – is a dominant occurrence, but it matters to discern in each case what drives it. Contrary to externalist views, European Shiʿism is held to emerge through a religious mode of engagement, involving hierarchizations of collective self and other identities. Shiʿite parties further removed or with greater independence from the high centres religious authority abroad are more likely to engage in cultural exchange with their European milieu. On the one side stands the mainstream of Shiʿite organizational life that often demonstrates bracketed, provisional, or otherwise limited formal engagement of others in Europe. The other shows striking cases of civic outreach, ritual transformation, and integrationist theology.

This chapter analyzes upcycling through an economic lens. First, it discusses the similarities and differences between resale, recycling, and upcycling from an economic perspective. Next, it analyzes the incentives for producers in the primary market to engage with these markets further down the lifecycle of a product. The author argues that companies with sufficient market power in their primary market often have an incentive to try to control such aftermarkets, particularly in the case of resale or upcycling, in order to price discriminate in the primary market or to reduce competition in their primary market. Subsequently, the chapter discusses the role of IPRs in this and analyzes from a normative economic perspective (incentive rationale for IPRs), whether IPRs should grant producers control over resale and upcycling.

While ethnicity remains the bedrock of Shiʿite organization, it is overlain with religio-political identities. This chapter treats a Europe-wide organization in the quadrant of marjaʿiyat-oriented bodies that are pro-velāyat-e faqih (the Ettehādiye). As this alignment suggests East-West, top-down religious transmission (the ‘model’), the question arises of whether it precludes European identity. Two cases of clerical organizations are cited, one associated with Ayatollah Fāzel-Lankerāni, that recognize the relevance of European particularity – as in stronger ecumenist than sectarian self-presentation. The picture is further complicated by a dissection of authority and identity flows in the lay Iranian student Ettehādiye, or ‘Union.’ Among the Union’s peculiarities (‘modes’ of European Shiʿism) were grassroots initiative and Islamist vanguard formation. The political clergy were its lodestar, but none controlled the Union before the Iranian revolution. When incorporation followed, reformism emerged within its ranks, imagining an alternative religio-political system. Even within this cluster of Shiʿite organizations, in other words, ‘crossflows of identity and authority’ occur. But where European inspiration travelled up and East post-1979, it was not a match for Islamic Republican control of the organization. Unlike the civic cases of the first chapter, its struggles remain internal, focused on Iranian state politics, and distant from Shiʿite-European interaction.

Whereas it is natural, when one studies a class of operators on a Banach or a Fréchet space, to try and describe the spectrum of elements of this class, we will devote little space to that question in this book (in the case of composition operators), essentially for three reasons:

Upcycling involves the creative reuse of materials that implicate a range of IPRs. Analyzed within the parameters of exhaustion, upcycling in practice illustrates the potential for the exhaustion doctrine in unleashing creativity through reusing and repurposing works. But this potential is limited by the existing contours of exhaustion, specifically its roots in the distribution rights and its uncertain expansion into repair and reconstruction. These limitations within the exhaustion doctrine are magnified through the overlap of rights in upcycled works: copyright with trademark, trademark with design rights. This chapter sets forth the policies underlying recognition of upcycling as permitted use within the contours of exhaustion and overlapping IPR’s. Overlap does not accrete the rights of IP owners or subtract the rights of follow-on creators. Instead, upcycling invites a rethinking of the dynamic of creative ecosystems marked by the reality of markets, transformative creations, and the needs of creative communities. The chapter also critically examining the policies raised by upcycling mandates challenging the linear model of IP dissemination which traces the origin of works to the owner of broadly defined IPRs.

This concluding chapter reiterates the main contributions of the book. Growth in most African countries has been characterised by a transformation from low-value agriculture to low-value services. As a result, structural transformation has remained largely elusive within Africa. Services has been the fastest-growing sector on the continent. Rwanda is unique among rapidly growing African countries in explicitly focusing on becoming a services hub. Using the case of Rwanda, this book shows that contemporary late development, which is more dependent on services, results in more transnational forms of dependence and political contestation than experienced in prior experiences of late development. The book ends with thoughts about the future of Rwanda. It argues that in the immediate short term, any instability will depend on what happens in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). In the long term, Rwanda’s political stability depends not on the government’s capacity to contain domestic popular mobilisation alone but on the capacity of transnational coalitions of dissident elites and external actors capitalising on existing horizontal inequalities to challenge the Rwandan Patriotic Front rule.

Given a Banach space X of analytic functions on D and a symbol ϕ, and, say, w ∈ H∞, w ≠ 0, we denote by Cϕ and MwCϕ the composition and weighted composition operators