On 15 January 2021, Malaysia requested consultations with the European Union, France and Lithuania pursuant to Article 4 of the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes (DSU), Article XXII of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994 (GATT 1994), Article 14 of the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement) and Article 30 of the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (SCM Agreement) regarding the measures and claims set out below.

The third chapter treats the geography of collective Shiʿite self and other and the question of its global contexts. It reassesses ʿĀshurā ritual to trans-European backgrounds of Shiʿite blood donation and charts the transnational evolution of the Twelver Khojas. While the first chapter presents it as local civic integration, blood donation is also a global practice supported by high religious authorities. Thus, blood donation involves cultural exchange on religious terms that both incorporates Shiʿites within national contexts of secular diversity and integrates the latter into Shiʿism’s orbit. Among Twelver Khojas, European settlement gave rise to globalized religious identity, political solidarity, or communal organization. Away from the Africa Federation in Britain, the Shia Ithnaʿashari Community of Middlesex broke open the caste mould, lowering the threshold for extramural relations while rebalancing communal self religiously. This involved strengthened transnational Shiʿite solidarity and a predilection for Middle East-centred, anti-Western Islamism. The World Federation of Khoja Shia Ithna-Asheri Muslim Communities emerged post-migration as a Britain-oriented body that evolved into the community’s global agent. Its international relations sectarianized and amplified the Twelver Khojas’ proto-statal functions on a world scale. In sum, the chapter demonstrates European transformations of Shiʿite identity in global religious contexts shaping trans-European selves.

Copyright misuse is a defence to enforcement of a valid copyright. It applies when a copyright owner either licenses or enforces its copyright in an unacceptable matter. For example, a paradigmatic case of misuse involves a copyright owner who uses a copyright license to prevent the licensee from developing competing works. A rightsholder who has committed misuse is barred from enforcing its copyright against others – including third parties who were not the direct victims of the acts of misuse – while the acts of misuse continue. This chapter explores how the misuse defence might apply in cases of upcycling involving copyright-protected materials. Although the defence of copyright misuse as such exists mainly in the US, the analysis in the chapter can also prove relevant for other countries. First, the US misuse doctrine bears considerable similarity to the general notion of abuse of rights. Second, the US misuse doctrine also borrows heavily from monopoly (anti-trust) law. While there are important differences between US anti-trust law and monopoly laws in other countries, many of the basic situations are treated the same. The discussion of the US misuse doctrine can therefore inform countries that might want to deal with upcycling situations.

This chapter analyzes upcycling from the perspective of copyright infringement. Upcycling should be encouraged, especially as it makes recycling an attractive and exciting option for consumers. IP rights (IPRs) can however be seen as a barrier for such utilization of raw material. This is because traditional IP doctrines do not fully recognize these kinds of interests, despite sustainability’s fundamental relevance in society and in the Treaty of the Functioning of the EU. The chapter develops a new doctrinal standpoint to consider copyright infringements in these specific cases as a part of introducing a more general ‘sustainable lifespan’ principle in IPRs regulation.

This chapter describes how dependence on coffee and other primary commodities exacerbated foreign dependency, especially during fluctuations in global primary commodity prices. The chapter discusses the Rwandan Patriotic Front’s (RPF) origins, including the key paradigmatic ideological foundations of the party while discussing the civil war and the 1994 genocide. The chapter ends by outlining three periods of the evolution of political settlement under RPF rule. Between 1994 and 2000, RPF loyalists were rewarded, while there was increased concentration of power among Tutsi RPF members. In the 2000s, until the early 2010s, RPF leadership centralised control among a smaller clique within the RPF, with increasing elite fragmentation characterising this period. In the third phase after the early 2010s, there has been increased external reliance, and the visible threat of transnational coalitions, comprising RPF dissidents and disenchanted domestic elites, has emerged but been contained.

This chapter offers a selective overview of several structures that generalize the notion of a signed graph. The term ‘generalize’ is used informally to indicate that whenever a matrix associated with a given structure extends or includes the corresponding matrix of a signed graph, we do not insist on strict formal definitions. Because each structure comes with an extensive body of results on its own, the overview is necessarily concise and focuses on presenting the structures rather than detailing their full theoretical developments. In particular, the chapter discusses graphs defined by Hermitian matrices, including weighted graphs, various families of gain graphs, and both mixed and extended mixed graphs, treating each of these topics in meaningful depth.

Chapter 3 is concerned with the ‘non-royal’ (or ‘private’) charter corpus – that is, documents that were issued by individuals other than kings – from Kent, Mercia and Wessex between the 830s and 880s. The chapter provides an overview of this material’s content and its production contexts and processes. Canterbury dominates, since this is where a large majority of the surviving documents comes from, though there are glimpses of other settings too. A significant portion of the material from Canterbury relates to two particular ealdormannic families, though other documents demonstrate that lay and ecclesiastic people of lesser social standing also participated in documentary activity. The picture that emerges is diverse; varying practices and contexts, and different motivations for codification, reflect the richness of contemporary documentary culture. The following important themes are considered too: female participation, the relationship between royal and non-royal documentation, and the varied uses of Latin and Old English.

This chapter studies linear ternary codes generated by strongly regular signed graphs, connections between signed graphs and line systems in Euclidean space with fixed angles, and links between the spectrum of signed graphs and the skew spectrum of associated oriented graphs. We provide general characterizations and concrete constructions of efficient ternary codes, showing that those derived from adjacency matrices of strongly regular signed graphs are often optimal or satisfy conditions guaranteeing high performance, with the ternary Golay code as a notable example. The chapter also gives an upper bound on the size of line systems with specified angular properties, achieved exactly when the system corresponds to a signed graph with two eigenvalues. A central contribution of the part concerning oriented graphs is a fundamental spectral correspondence between signed graphs and associated oriented graphs, which enables the latter to be studied through the spectral theory of the former and is illustrated through several examples.

This excerpt is from a testimony recalled by an eyewitness, who claimed to have seen four Naxalites being killed in an ‘encounter’ by the police in the southern Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It appears in the interim report of the Civil Rights Committee (an unofficial, voluntary committee set up to investigate several ‘encounter’ killings of Naxalite prisoners) released in 1977. The committee was comprised of prominent civil society figures, lawyers, activists and journalists. The report claimed that the police ‘encounters’ they investigated were, in fact, extra-judicial killings. This claim anticipated what is today widely recognised in the public sphere, namely, that ‘encounters’ by the police or armed forces are often staged. The report was submitted to the prime minister of India and released to the press. The opposition raised questions in parliament regarding the claims of the report and a judicial commission of inquiry under Justice V. Bhargava was set up by the Andhra Pradesh government to conduct public hearings on the alleged encounters of Naxalites during and after the Emergency.

The report was a result of a fact-finding investigation. Fact-finding investigations are the predominant mode of activism for civil liberties groups in India. In a typical fact-finding investigation, an inquiry team is established on a one-off basis. The team visits the scene or site of the case, ascertains facts, identifies those who are culpable and makes demands or recommendations.