This chapter describes Rwanda’s record within the manufacturing sector. Until recently, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) did not prioritise manufacturing-based growth because of the high transport costs associated with its landlocked geographical position. While there has been some attempt at refocusing on industrial policy since 2015, because of a rising trade deficit and the urgent need to create employment, there has not been substantial progress. Rwanda has not achieved significant advances in increasing industrial employment, production and exports. After presenting the evolution of Rwanda’s industrial policy, the chapter provides detailed examples of three sectors: apparels (textiles and garments), construction materials and pharmaceuticals. In line with dynamics in other sectors, domestic capital has been marginalised in favour of supporting RPF-affiliated firms or relying on foreign investors. Some foreign investors like Volkswagen and BioNTech have invested in Rwanda with much fanfare, but most success has been driven by RPF-affiliated firms. Rwanda’s hopes for structural transformation fall at a key domestic hurdle: building effective state–business relationships aimed at technological capability acquisition for latecomer firms.

Given an analytic self-map ϕ : D → D, called the symbol of the composition operator, we can always define

This chapter is devoted to the recently defined concept of strongly regular signed graphs (SRSGs), which generalizes the notion of strongly regular graphs from the domain of ordinary graphs. It presents the basic properties of SRSGs, provides specific constructions, and, as a fundamental result, classifies them into five disjoint classes. Each class is examined in detail, highlighting both similarities and distinctions with strongly regular graphs. The chapter also explores particular connections with 3-class association schemes, as well as constructions of signed Johnson and signed Hamming graphs. The concept of strong regularity is further combined with net regularity and walk regularity, with particular attention given to signed graphs that belong to the intersection of these classes. SRSGs with a small number of eigenvalues are analysed, accompanied by numerous illustrative constructions. For example, it has been shown that every connected signed graph with exactly two eigenvalues must be strongly regular.

The first chapter concerns the significance of ethnic-national identity. It first gives a methodological argument for the focus on organizations. It then offers a breakdown of Shiʿite organizations and their interlocking board memberships in Britain and the Netherlands. This establishes ethnic-national identity as the bedrock of Shiʿite organization in the UK-Dutch sample. An Islamic thought pattern exemplified by the Shiʿite notable Ali Allawi is used to frame several cases of civic engagement that transcend the ethnic-national mould and show Shiʿism as a political actor, whose role is limited, however, by low organization density. The organizations of this chapter are ‘contrapuntal’ not only in the civic-ethnic contrast, but also in that between ethnic-national reality and the Islamic norm of parochial transcendence. Moreover, organizational reality contrasts a key trend in the social science theory of Islam in Europe, which presents Europe as an assimilating force leading to Muslims’ de-ethnicization. This first chapter indicates the opposite: identitarian retention.

This chapter describes the evolution of the mining sector in Rwanda, both its domestic mining sector and in relation to the trade of minerals from the neighbouring Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Trading minerals from mineral-rich Eastern DRC has benefited Rwanda’s domestic economy through providing access to foreign exchange revenues. However, dependence on minerals from the DRC has been a double-edged sword. While providing significant revenues and being central to national security interests, increased reliance on the DRC contributes to the empowerment of individual business and military elites that may later become threats to the RPF’s ruling coalition. The RPF has transformed the domestic minerals sector with increased investments in geological investigations, as well as significant increases in domestic production. Dynamics in the domestic minerals sector mirror the elite vulnerability characterising other sectors. Though individual elites initially benefited from privatisation efforts, there is increased reliance on government-owned firms (like Ngali) for its most ambitious upgrading strategies. Attempts at beneficiation have been impeded by difficulties in developing effective domestic state–business relationships and challenges in centralising control over supply chains.

The introduction treats Shiʿite-European encounters; locates them in the social science theory on Muslims in Europe; frames the research question alternatively; and gives chapter outlines. It starts with a sketch of Shiʿite Muslims’ migration to Europe and the development of their communities. The literature review juxtaposes assimilatory approaches to Muslims in Europe that see Europe as a cultural transformer and sceptical perspectives asserting mal-integration or its absence. The alternative hypothesis holds that European Shiʿism has been significantly self-contained, with traditions key to grasping its self-other relations, which range from segregation to assimilation. The (post-)migration context brings self-other relations to the fore, provoking questions of relative order that are answered in more exclusionary fashion by actors closer to high jurisprudential authority. The main themes in this theory of European Shiʿism are mapped on to chapter outlines and case studies.

Slowing down and mitigating the impact of climate change necessitates changes to individual behaviour in a multitude of realms. While reducing resource waste in the production process and consuming less are essential, it is also necessary to increase resource reuse with both effective re- and upcycling. However, relatively little is known about the determinants of upcycling behaviour. In this chapter, the literature on the identified psychological and social drivers is reviewed. A broader reading of behavioural determinants for green behaviour change is used to outline possible pathways for behaviour change still untested in a scientific setting in the context of upcycling. The chapter concludes with a critical review on the relative impact of both up- and recycling compared to their perceived effectiveness. Potential ways increase the likelihood of effective reuse while also reducing overall resource use are considered from a social norms perspective.

Chapter 5 assesses the patronage and use of books in the late ninth and early tenth centuries. The following case studies are discussed: two earlier Anglo-Saxon prayerbooks (the Book of Cerne and Book of Nunnaminster) to which new material was added, a new volume of Latin hagiographies (Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, lat. 5574), and a Carolingian manuscript to which several additions were made by English-trained scribes (London, British Library, Cotton Vespasian D. xiv, fols. 170–224). Engagement with these books took place in diverse settings, some of which were more informal than one might expect. The motivations for such activity are assessed too. These case studies pave the way for a holistic assessment of the contemporary manuscript corpus. Physical qualities, texts and languages are considered, as are the possible settings in which books were produced and used. Attention is drawn to the evidence for female book use, and to the importance of international networks. Continuities with earlier decades are acknowledged, as are new developments, including a more pronounced association between books and bishops. The chapter closes with a call to remain open-minded about this book culture’s range of social contexts and participants.

This chapter provides a snapshot of Rwanda’s evolving political settlement and economic development trajectory. The chapter begins by highlighting significant structural vulnerabilities that shaped Rwanda’s domestic politics historically, including ethnicity-based inequalities and political contestation, historical divisions associated with the royal family and aristocracy, refugee issues, inadequate employment opportunities and regional inequalities. It then highlights the rapid growth that took place in Rwanda over the last three decades, which has also been accompanied by significant export diversification. It then provides a brief political settlement analysis of present-day Rwanda, highlighting how development is being contested transnationally, pointing to the key vulnerabilities characterising its hub-based strategy. In particular, it describes how increased elite vulnerability has meant that the government has been reluctant to support domestic capital. As a result, the Rwandan government has failed to develop effective state–business relations aimed at achieving structural transformation.

The book is motivated by the question of analysing how Rwanda’s development trajectory can contribute to our understanding of why structural transformation remains so elusive. This chapter introduces the central contributions of the book. First, the book employs structuralist political settlements analysis to highlight how contemporary late development is contested transnationally, prompting the need for analysis across different scales. Second, the book describes how African growth has been largely driven by the services sector and Rwanda is emblematic of contemporary African growth experiences, especially since, like elsewhere on the continent, structural transformation has remained elusive. Third, the book contributes to existing literature on Rwanda by highlighting that the Rwandan Patriotic Front prioritised services-based strategies partly to reduce its reliance on domestic businesspeople because of the elite vulnerability that has characterised its rule. This strategy has yielded growth and export diversification without achieving structural transformation because elite vulnerability has inhibited effective state–business relations. The introduction also includes a discussion of the methodology employed in the book and the structure of the chapters that follow.