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Theories about the representation and processing of regular and irregular past tense forms of verbs in English have disagreed as to whether they should be treated as a unified phenomenon (e.g. both rule-governed, or both generated by a connectionist net), or as two distinct types of linguistic entities (e.g. regulars formed by rules of the grammar, irregulars stored in lexical memory). In this article we present data from a positron emission tomographic study in which subjects were asked to produce the past tense forms of regular, irregular, and nonce stems. We find very different amounts and areas of cortical activation in the regular and irregular tasks, as well as significantly different reaction times in producing the past tenses. We interpret our findings as supporting the grammar/lexicon theories, and discuss the implications of our results for general linguistic theory.
This article explores phenomenological open graphic notation as an effective scoring method for instrumentalists engaging with chaotic systems in interactive electroacoustic music. Open graphic notation has long provided composers with a means of fostering interpretative freedom in musical performance. The subjective nature of open graphic scores establishes a dynamic relationship between the score and the performer that parallels the interactions between musicians and chaotic systems in interactive electroacoustic music. Chaotic systems, characterised by their non-linear and unpredictable behaviour, often necessitate improvisatory approaches rather than reliance on fixed notation. However, notation can serve as a structural framework, affording composers greater formal control while supporting performers who may be less accustomed to improvisation. How, then, might notation be used with chaotic systems in interactive electroacoustic music? Drawing on phenomenological concepts such as the lived body, embodied action and Gestalt perception, this notational approach can provide a structured yet flexible means of guiding performer–system interactions. The author presents three recent compositions as case studies, demonstrating how phenomenological open graphic notation can shape and mediate the performer’s engagement with chaotic systems in interactive electroacoustic music.