The governance of politics, the economy and security has evolved in the Gulf States since independence. State formation describes the process by which states have grown in capacity and resources for the governance of different public policy areas: security, economic welfare and political representation. Theoretical approaches to state formation propose to look at war-making and resource mobilisation as drivers of this. However, war-making has in the Middle East often destroyed states, rather than helped build them. Moreover, rulers of the Gulf States have benefited from abundant revenues from oil and gas that have allowed them to govern without the need to mobilise domestic revenues. The specific governance model that has emerged is described as a rentier state bargain. Rulers are expected to ensure security, provide welfare and allow for representation of their citizens. This chapter describes the evolution of these processes in the Gulf States, including how certain societal groups have been central in state formation. The chapter also discusses expectations for a social contract beyond the rentier bargain.

This chapter examines the foreign policies of the Gulf states, including members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), Iraq and Iran. It systematically evaluates three primary contextual dimensions that exert influence on the formulation of foreign policy within the Gulf region, namely the domestic, regional and international arenas. Furthermore, this chapter delves into the application of key international relations theories, including realism, neorealism, liberalism and constructivism, as frameworks for explaining the external behaviour of Gulf states. While realist and neorealist perspectives offer valuable insights into the Gulf states’ behaviour, particularly regarding threat perceptions and power dynamics, alternative theoretical paradigms offer different analyses that contribute to our understanding of Gulf politics. Since their inception, the Gulf states adopted diverse strategies aimed at ensuring their survival, including strategic hedging, omni-balancing and bandwagoning. Therefore, this chapter explains the evolution of Gulf states’ foreign policies, tracing their progress from the reliance on external powers, mainly the US, to having greater autonomy and confidence in the pursuit of their own interests.

This chapter discusses the intricate dynamics of environmental governance, emphasising the evolution from traditional top-down approaches to contemporary multi-actor networks. It begins with a historical overview of environmental policymaking over the past five decades, highlighting key milestones such as the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment and subsequent treaties like the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement. The chapter explores the roles of various actors in shaping environmental governance. It highlights the importance of equitable power distribution and social justice in environmental decision-making. Through examples from China, Brazil and Africa, the chapter illustrates the challenges and successes of implementing environmental governance in diverse contexts. The discussion extends to marine protected areas (MPAs) as an example of collaborative governance, emphasising the need for inclusive and participatory strategies. The chapter concludes by examining the role of local networks and social capital in promoting sustainable practices, reinforcing the interconnectedness of environmental governance and social structures.

This chapter explores the transformative impact of the digital sphere and artificial intelligence (AI) on environmental communication. The rise of digital platforms has significantly influenced how environmental issues are communicated, promoting awareness, fostering engagement and mobilising action. The first part of the chapter discusses the role of social media and influencers in shaping environmental discourses and collective identities. The second part examines the opportunities and challenges posed by AI, highlighting its potential to analyse large datasets and personalise engagement while also addressing issues pertaining to reliability and the spread of AI-enabled misinformation and fake news. The environmental costs associated with AI technologies, such as high energy and resource consumption, are also explored. The chapter underscores the dual nature of digital technologies, emphasising the need for critical engagement to ensure that technological innovations support environmental justice without exacerbating existing problems.

This chapter explores environmental communication in more detail, with a particular focus on communication and linguistics aspects. It argues that successful environmental communication is not simply about transmitting facts but about fostering understanding, engagement and enabling informed decisions that can drive positive change. The chapter starts by discussing the communication process, highlighting key components and the roles of various constituent parts in this process. It also takes a critical look at traditional communication models and their applicability in an era of extensive digital communication. The chapter then discusses the significance of metaphors and frames in shaping perceptions and fostering understanding of complex environmental issues. Within this context, cultural differences in metaphor use are also examined. This is followed by a discussion of the concepts of symbolic competence and symbolic capital and their relevance to decoding and creating effective environmental messages. The final section introduces the role of visual elements, such as infographics and data visualisation, and their impact on audience perception and engagement.

This chapter outlines the evolution, scope and transformative potential of environmental communication, framing it as a praxis-oriented field rooted in crisis response and care-driven action. It traces the emergence of environmental communication from its activist origins in the 1970s to its present interdisciplinary form. The chapter highlights the sociopolitical and cultural dimensions of environmental struggles, particularly in the Global South. It introduces environmental communication as both a ‘crisis discipline’, committed to documenting unsustainable practices, and a ‘care discipline’, fostering relational ethics and biodiversity awareness. The dual functions of environmental messages – pragmatic (informative and persuasive) and constitutive (identity and meaning-shaping) – are explained through examples ranging from mass media portrayals to grassroots interventions. Emphasising intercultural mediation, the chapter advocates for inclusive dialogues that account for power hierarchies, postcolonial legacies and cultural frames. Ultimately, the text proposes environmental communication as a transformative tool for bridging divides and catalysing collective environmental responsibility, with a particular focus on justice, empathy and critical engagement across global contexts.

Although oil is not the only potential source of rent from the rest of the world for contemporary states, it is by far the most important. The increase in oil prices post 1970 facilitated the emergence of rentier states, especially, but not exclusively, in the Gulf region, hugely increasing the volume of the rent at their disposal. This allowed consolidation of political regimes which otherwise would probably not have survived, and gave power holders an unprecedented degree of autonomy from their societies. The chapter then explains how the rentier state needs to engage in large-scale public expenditure to circulate the rent domestically, nurture a private sector and promote economic development along a peculiar model of its own. In order to counter the phenomenon known in economics as the ‘Dutch Disease’, the Gulf states have opened their doors to massive temporary immigration of foreign workers, creating a very peculiar labour market structure which has ended up damaging the opportunities for productive employment available to nationals, especially the young. This model must now be overcome, but while some states are in a position to remain rentiers, thanks to large accumulation of financial resources, others face an eroding oil rent and the need to increase domestic taxation to pay for their ever-increasing expenditure. Increasing reliance on taxation of nationals is inevitably coupled with increasing demand for accountability, which will eventually need to be accommodated through political reform.

This chapter examines the profound impact of the Arab uprisings on the six Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE)). While initially perceived as distant from the epicentre of the unrest, these countries underwent significant economic, political and security transformations as a result of it. It describes key events initiated by the Tunisian revolution, emphasising the interconnectedness of the Gulf region with the wider Arab uprisings. Furthermore, it explores the economic and socio-political conditions in the GCC countries that shaped their responses to the uprisings, particularly in the context of the challenges posed by the oil-based developmental model. In terms of implications, it dwells on the growing polarisation and intra-GCC rifts, particularly the conflict between the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the UAE, on the one hand, and Qatar, on the other, between 2017 and 2021, jeopardising regional integration. The Arab uprisings revealed the vulnerabilities of the GCC countries’ status quo, leading to a reassessment of their political and economic trajectory both from the domestic and the external relations points of view.

Causation is arguably the most complex of the elements of negligence. It is covered in three sections in this chapter. Section 13.1 covers the criteria for identifying a recognisable harm and the nature of causation in tort law – what type of explanation does it look for? Section 13.2 covers the evolution of the methods adopted by Australian courts to identify factual causation. Section 13.3 discusses the difficult normative challenge of putting a limit on the extent (or ‘scope’) of a defendant’s liability.

Because this area of the law of negligence is extremely complex, the chapter includes two sets of ‘Summary points’ and two ‘Test your understanding’ features. At the end of the chapter, you will find an appendix with the provisions on causation adopted in the civil liability legislation in each state and territory.

The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) was created in 1981 as a sub-regional Arab integration project amid regional turmoil and security challenges to the newly independent oil-rich Gulf monarchies: the Kingdom of Bahrain, the State of Kuwait, the Sultanate of Oman, the State of Qatar, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The GCC was created as an exclusive club between the traditional Arab Gulf monarchies that share historical ties, similar social and cultural background, common characteristics and similar systems. The founding Charter spells out its objective as to effect coordination, integration and interconnection between member states in all fields in order to achieve unity between them. These objectives were wide-ranging and ambitious but did not reflect on its rather basic organisational structure and traditional decision-making process. The integration process and its international cooperation were delayed due to historical antagonisms, dynastic rivalries, territorial disputes and sovereignty issues, which caused friction, and mistrust, which hindered its cohesion and development. Nevertheless, the GCC stands to be one of the most successful Arab regional projects and has been able to show some noticeable success and measurable achievements especially in economic and security spheres, and to withstand many internal and external challenges.

This chapter emphasizes the foundational importance of clearly defining the scope and goals of an organization as the initial step in the organizational design process. Scope determines how the organization frames its purpose and communicates its identity, which in turn influences strategic choices, stakeholder alignment, and operational priorities. Goals – particularly those related to efficiency and effectiveness – serve as critical dimensions for assessing organizational performance and guiding design decisions. The chapter has illustrated how sustainability considerations and the pursuit of the triple bottom line can reshape both scope and goal formulation, requiring integrated design solutions that balance financial, social, and environmental outcomes. Through examples and empirical evidence, we have shown that organizations must navigate trade-offs and potential misalignments between scope, goals, and design components. Ultimately, a coherent and well-articulated scope, combined with a nuanced understanding of goal priorities, provides the analytical foundation for diagnosing organizational fit and initiating effective design interventions.