Actions in cyberspace by governments, businesses, NGOs and other players have become part of international relations and international security. Those actions reflect countries’ national interests and affect their bilateral and multilateral diplomatic relationships. This has led to the rise of cyber diplomacy, the activity of deploying international cooperation in cyberspace and using actions in cyberspace to achieve foreign-policy goals. The main focus of cyber diplomacy in its early stages is trying to forge a way to regulate state behavior and prevent and regulate conflict in cyberspace. Some governments have extended their cyber diplomacy portfolios to include the foreign-policy implications of new technologies. Both traditional tools from the diplomacy toolbox and new technologies are needed to build and maintain international cooperation in cyberspace. Cyber diplomacy is not the activity of using digital tools to accomplish traditional foreign-policy objectives–that is the definition of digital diplomacy.

In Van Gend en Loos and Costa, the Court stated that EU law was an autonomous legal order which limited the sovereignty of member States. These EU law qualities prevent other laws determining central elements of EU law (‘autonomy of EU law’); grant precedence to EU law over national law (‘primacy of EU law’); allow EU law alone to determine when there is a conflict between it and national law and the consequences of that (‘pre-emption’); and require national authorities to ensure that the EU legal system functions effectively and its authority is sustained (‘fidelity principle’). Historically, most national courts have accepted the authority of EU law over national law, subject to three constraints. First, EU law should not violate fundamental rights recognised in their respective constitutions. Secondly, if it generates significant consequences for the national democracy, the EU law must not be clearly ultra vires. Thirdly, a number of courts will not accept EU law primacy on matters that go to that State’s constitutional identity, most notably those issues over which that court believes national parliaments have the necessary democratic pedigree.

Multilateral diplomacy is defined as the management of relations among three or more nation-states, both within and outside international organizations. The main value of multilateral diplomacy is its ability to reduce the complexity of international relations in everyday life, including traveling, sending mail and solving crimes across borders. It produces agreements that are much more practical and less costly than a web of bilateral arrangements between individual countries, and it sets common standards that enable collaboration among scientists, engineers and businesses around the world. In addition to formal international organizations, multilateral diplomacy is practiced in informal or ad hoc groups and coalitions. There are few things in multilateral diplomacy more important than who writes the rules, who sets the agenda, and who holds the pen during negotiations.

Political tradecraft is a set of duties, responsibilities and skills required of diplomats who work in political affairs. It is the main instrument in the diplomatic tradecraft toolbox, which also includes, among other tools, economic tradecraft, commercial diplomacy, consular affairs and public diplomacy. Political officers work both at diplomatic missions abroad and at headquarters, such as their ministry of foreign affairs or the State Department. Although there are some differences in a political officer’s daily duties at home compared with those abroad, they all participate in managing international relations and implementing foreign policy. Those who rise to the most senior positions in their ministry or department also take part in the policymaking process. The primacy of politics is the reason the political department is the most powerful in any ministry of foreign affairs, and its head, known as “political director,” is typically among the highest-ranking officials.

Waterwheels have been used for centuries for grinding corn, and the first hydro turbine was built almost 200 years ago. Hydro power now produces around 16% of worldwide electrical energy. The hydrological cycle is described and the use of flow duration curves to quantify the resource is demonstrated. The power that can be generated from the hydro resource is calculated, as well as the energy that can be stored in a reservoir. The difference between impulse and reaction turbines is explained with illustrations, and simple approaches to their analysis described. High-, medium- and low-head hydro schemes are described. The use of specific speed to choose the type of turbine for a site is demonstrated. The environmental impact of hydro schemes is discussed. The development of small hydro schemes is addressed as well as the use of Archimedes screw generators. The chapter is supported by 6 examples, 16 questions with answers and full solutions in the accompanying online material. Further reading and online resources are identified.

Wind energy is a major source renewable electricity generation in many countries and the diameter of wind turbine rotors is increasing. Onshore and offshore wind farms are described. The principles of wind turbine operation is explained and the importance of the power curve identified. Wind turbine rotors are analysed using axial momentum theory and the Betz limit; the power and torque coefficients are derived using the axial momentum factor. The generation of torque through lift on the blades is described and the principles of pitch and stall power regulation discussed. Fixed- and variable-speed operation of wind turbine rotors is described and variable-speed operations using two full-power converters demonstrated. Site wind speeds are described in terms of Weibull statistics and the method of bins discussed. The importance of wind turbulence and its effect on turbines is identified. Development of wind farms and the use of measure–correlate–predict to estimate long-term windspeeds is reviewed. The chapter is supported by 3 examples, 14 questions with answers and full solutions in the accompanying online material. Further reading and online resources are identified.

Many renewable energy sources produce electricity, and the fundamental operation of a national alternating current electric power system is described. The difference between real and reactive power is explained. The impact of renewable energy sources on the voltage of the power system is demonstrated through an example and approaches to controlling network voltages are discussed. The control of frequency is described and the importance of maintaining sufficient inertia is highlighted. Scheduling generation in a power system with significant fraction of renewable energy generation is explained. Approaches to demand-side participation and the importance of this concept are discussed. The connection of onshore and offshore wind farms to the power system is discussed. Approaches to the design of PV farms are illustrated. The chapter is supported by 6 examples, 10 questions with answers and full solutions in the accompanying online material. Further reading and online resources are identified.

In Chapter 4, we started with a rigorous derivation of force on a spherical particle in the limit of zero Reynolds number in a time-dependent uniform ambient flow, which led to the BBO equation. We then extended the analysis to spatially varying flows in the Stokes limit and obtained the MRG equation. At finite Reynolds number, due to the introduction of fluid inertia, we saw how difficult a complete solution of the hydrodynamic force on a particle can become. In this chapter, we plan to boldly venture into the difficult topic of interaction between a particle and a turbulent flow.

In Chapter 12, we describe labor markets in great detail, including the implications of labor as a “derived demand”; outcomes under competition, monopsony, and unions; the distinction between shirking and lax works demands as a fringe benefit; personal and statistical discrimination (with application to decision-making in business); and payment structures (with piece-rate pay and/or commissions).

Communities living far from a grid network are increasingly being supplied by off-grid renewable energy systems. However, a consensus of the best approach to their design has yet to emerge. A number of options are being trialled and these are described. Small dc photovoltaic systems with batteries are well established but can only supply limited amounts of power. An example of the supply of power to a remote health facility is shown. Microgrids combine a number of energy sources connected using either ac or dc. These connection architectures are demonstrated. An example of an operating ac microgrid is shown, together with the initial design calculations of the scheme. The concept of community energy is explained with a demonstration of the potential benefits of peer-to-peer energy trading. The chapter is supported by 4 examples, 7 questions with answers and full solutions in the accompanying online material. Further reading and online resources are identified.

In Chapter 10, we discuss monopoly, degrees of monopoly power, and the “price searching” behavior of firms who have discretion over price. We detail various (natural and artificial) barriers to entry (and exit). We provide a conventional description of the inefficiencies of monopoly power, but also note how the possibility of (at least short-term) monopoly profits provides a useful (if not necessary) incentive for entrepreneurs to innovate and create new markets.