Peter Lombard’s The Sentences is a highly influential classic of the 12th century. It became the textbook of scholastic theology throughout the 13th century and beyond. This chapter discusses his views on the Trinity, Creation, Christology, the Incarnation and the virtues, and his sacramentology.

Psychology began as an independent scientific discipline in the late nineteenth century. However, it built on the philosophical insights and scientific accomplishments of the prior centuries. In this chapter, we cover that background. We start by describing the work of the early scientists Galileo, Newton, and Harvey; their faith in the ability of human reason and careful observation to understand how the natural world works continues to inspire scientists today. We then discuss important traditions of “modern” philosophy, where reason and observation were similarly important – indeed, the philosophers often disagreed about the roles of these two processes in attaining knowledge, as we will see. As you read about each scientist and philosopher, consider how their own reasoning is similar to that of psychological researchers today, thinking through complex phenomena to understand the principles behind a wide variety of our experiences in the world.

This chapter considers the major societal, economic and cultural changes that occurred in the 13th century. It also discusses the mendicant orders (Franciscans, Dominicans), the universities and the impact of Islamic scholars (Avicenna, Averroes) on scholastic theology.

Edward Titchener and Hugo Münsterberg earned their PhDs with Wundt then emigrated to the United States in 1892. Each man directed a major psychological laboratory, Titchener at Cornell, and Münsterberg at Harvard. They lived the remainder of their lives in the United States. Though neither became an American citizen, they were both influential figures in American psychology. There, however, the similarity ends.

Most of the traditional general books on comparative law include chapters on ‘legal families’, some of them using terms such as ‘legal traditions’ or ‘legal cultures’.1 The core idea of legal families is that the diversity of the world’s legal systems is not random, but that groups of countries share common features in terms of legal history, legal thinking and positive rules. Recently, this idea of legal families has also become popular among economists and political scientists, who often call them ‘legal origins’.

Psychology is often defined as the study of the mind, or as William James (1890) put it, “the science of mental life.” However, during the behaviorist and neobehaviorist eras, many psychologists were hesitant to make such a description. Some of B. F. Skinner’s followers tried hard to avoid using any mental terms (e.g., think), even in casual conversation, and behaviorism’s founder John B. Watson had asserted that he was not even sure what those terms meant. However, after World War II, developments both in psychology and in other disciplines led to a major change, a return to explicitly and openly studying the mental processes by which conscious and deliberate behavior emerges. This change is often known as the cognitive revolution (e.g., Gardner, 1985).1 Cognitive approaches to psychology are very popular now, to the point where they are often taken for granted. In this chapter we consider how that change came about, and then discuss some even more recent developments in the field. As you read, consider the following questions: How did advances outside of psychology lead to pushback against behaviorism and the emergence of a general cognitive perspective? What was early cognitive psychology like, and what features of behaviorism has it retained? What do cognitive perspectives look like across different areas of psychology, and what recent trends have followed in the past few decades?

‘Lawyers are professionally parochial. Comparative law is our effort to be cosmopolitan.’1 This statement may seem exaggerated, but there is also a good deal of truth in it. Most lawyers are almost entirely trained and specialised in the law of their domestic jurisdiction. Thus, as soon as lawyers leave the borders of their own country, they may feel as if they are stranded on a foreign planet. Learning about comparative law aims to address this problem. But where do you start? Which method do you apply? And is it really feasible to learn about all laws of the world?

Human rights have traditionally been viewed as being of concern to governments only. The BHR discussion challenges this traditional, state-centric view and provides reasons why businesses ought to have human rights responsibilities, too. Such reasons or justifications can be formulated from an ethical, legal, and even a more pragmatic, managerial point of view. From an ethical perspective, the chapter shows why businesses have obligations beyond profit-maximization and why human rights obligations are among such responsibilities. It lays particular emphasis on the power and authority of corporations as a possible foundation. From a legal perspective, the chapter addresses the question of whether multinational corporations have international legal personality and assesses to what extent corporate human rights obligations can be derived from international human rights law. From a pragmatic perspective, the social license to operate and the so-called business case for human rights responsibilty are explored. The chapter concludes with some reflections on general objections against corporate human rights responsibility.

This chapter deals with Hugh of St. Victor and his main works, such as De Tribus Diebus, Didascalicon and De Sacramentis. It covers the following topics: the sacramental understanding of the world, his pedagogy and his major theological writing On the Sacraments, with specific attention to his views on faith and love.

To the general public, a “psychologist” usually does not denote a researcher, but a clinician who diagnoses and treats psychological problems. In this chapter, we discuss the roots of this distinct type of psychology. We start with Sigmund Freud and the development of psychoanalysis. Freud lived a fascinating life, and his ideas are best understood in their historical context. In particular, that context helps to make certain apparently bizarre ideas seem much more sensible. If you already have opinions about Freud and psychoanalysis, observe how they change (if at all) as your historical understanding increases. We then turn to the work of Lightner Witmer, a man far less well known than Freud, but who did nothing less than invent clinical psychology (both the term and the practice) by opening the first psychological clinic. We finish by discussing the separate histories of clinical, counseling, and school psychology; as we will see, even though Witmer influenced all of them, other external influences were important in making these specialties different from each other.

Globalisation has given rise to legal transplants, convergence, and regional and international laws, as discussed in the previous two chapters. However, the proliferation of transnational law and the emergence of global law may have had an even more profound impact as they challenge the traditional notion of state-based law. For comparative law, such changes to the legal configuration may show the limitations of traditional methods and tools of comparative law.