This chapter explores ways you can expand information provided in noun phrases, with the first half focusing on grammatical specification and the second half on semantic modification. The first section investigates the types of determiners that occur in languages, including articles and demonstratives, and the second section focuses on possessive forms and the types of relationships they can reflect. The final two sections introduce modifiers that can occur within noun phrases, including adjectives and adposition phrases. You will decide if your language will have any adjectives belonging to its basic vocabulary and set a foundation for the shapes modifiers take within noun phrases.

The first section of the chapter introduces you to the world of pronouns, beginning with personal pronouns, whose (typically small) forms can inflect to indicate a wide range of grammatical information: person, number, class, and case. The next section focuses on other pronouns, including demonstrative, reflexive, and indefinite forms. The chapter ends with a discussion of verb agreement to demonstrate how verbs can inflect to agree with at least one argument in the clause and connects verb agreement inflections to pronouns and their use. By the end of this chapter, you will have developed series of pronouns for your language and made your first major decision about verb inflections.

Null hypothesis significance testing is reviewed along with how this method is used for testing hypotheses in research studies. Students are guided through the structures of experimental and correlational studies along with justifications for performing one method or the other. Factors involving choosing surveys, including considerations of reliability and validity, are discussed. Understanding what survey constructs (i.e., psychometric factors) are, how they are developed, and how they are scored are reviewed. Cronbach’s α and McDonald’s ω are reviewed as popular ways to measure the internal consistency reliability of subscales in a survey. Students are taught how to calculate these two statistics using SPSS and R.

This chapter focuses on foundational grammatical concepts, first discussing the basic difference between content and function lexical categories before moving on to morphological language type, grammaticalization, and inflectional marking. The information investigated in this and the next four chapters is so interconnected that the material, as it is presented, is a bit like a spiral. One section will introduce you to a specific concept with a handful of other concepts and then a later section will return to that initial concept while discussing other related concepts. This material will continue to be presented using a spiraling method, linking the major grammatical concepts of this and the next four chapters. The grammatical decisions you will make at the end of this chapter focus on how much grammatical information is packaged within a single word unit and how constituents beyond the subject, object, and verb are typically ordered in clauses.

Students are guided through learning about comparing the means of two groups / levels using a t-test. The differences between a paired samples t-test and an independent samples t-test are reviewed along with the statistics’ assumptions. When two independent groups do not have equal variances, students are coached through completing a Mann–Whitney U test. Students are also guided through creating charts that can accompany their results in SPSS or R.

The chi-square test of independence, goodness-of-fit, and McNemar test are reviewed as methods for student researchers to compare the frequencies between categorical variables. The applications, appropriateness, and use for testing hypotheses are reviewed. The differences between categorical vs. scalar and non-parametric vs. parametric tests are reviewed. Additionally, how to interpret mosaic plots and bar charts is discussed. Step-by-step instructions are given to perform these statistics along with how to generate the appropriate plots in SPSS and R.

This chapter explores the transformative role of knowledge and technology in Europe’s economic history, with a special focus on the Industrial Revolution. It examines how the transfer of scientific and technological knowledge contributed to economic growth and convergence between European countries. The chapter highlights the role of education, institutional frameworks and innovation in facilitating the diffusion of technology across borders. It also considers the factors that limited convergence, such as disparities in institutional and educational development. By tracing the evolution of technological and scientific advancements, the chapter provides insight into the processes that allowed Europe to lead global economic development during the Industrial Revolution and beyond.

This chapter explores the globalization of factor markets, particularly focusing on capital and labour, and how international monetary regimes have influenced these markets throughout European history. It discusses the evolution of capital markets and the role of different monetary systems, such as the gold standard and Bretton Woods, in facilitating cross-border capital mobility. The chapter also examines the impact of migration on labour markets, exploring how the movement of people has shaped economic outcomes in Europe. It highlights the benefits of globalization, such as increased efficiency and economic integration, while also acknowledging the challenges, including inequality and labour market disruptions.

This chapter examines the historical evolution of trade and globalization in Europe, focusing on the forces that have shaped trade patterns over time. It explores the impact of technological advancements, such as improvements in transportation and communication, as well as the influence of political decisions on trade policy, including cycles of protectionism and free trade. The chapter also discusses the economic benefits and challenges of globalization, analysing how trade has contributed to economic growth while also creating winners and losers within and between countries. The chapter argues that while globalization has generally increased economic efficiency, its effects have been unevenly distributed.