This chapter introduces strategies for building new words from existing pieces in the language. The first section introduces the concept of lexical gaps, some of which may be filled by expanding the lexicon using word-formation processes. The second and third sections discuss the two most common word-formation processes, compounding and derivation. The fourth section introduces conversion and semantic extension, which are methods for expanding a lexicon without creating new word forms. The chapter ends with a discussion on borrowing (though borrowing will not be appropriate for every conlang). By the end of this chapter, you will expand the vocabulary of your conlang to include words that have been derived and/or compounded and will consider how you might expand the definitions of existing words to include new meanings.

This chapter begins the focus on grammar, which includes all the information (or “rules”) necessary to generate new, meaningful utterances in a language. The basic introduction provided in this chapter provides the foundation you will need for all the upcoming chapters. The first and second sections introduce major concepts like grammatical form, grammatical function, word order, and headedness. The third section provides a sample walkthrough of how to work with linguistic data sets to analyze a language’s grammatical patterns, a skill that is useful for conlangers to develop a stronger understanding of grammatical structures. The fourth section models the decision-making process you will follow as you make initial decisions about your conlang’s grammar.

In Chapter 10, students learned how to predict a continuous dependent variable with a multiple linear regression. In this chapter, students learn how to predict a dichotomous dependent variable with a binary logistic regression analysis. Students also learn how to interpret and visualize the results with an ROC curve. A binary logistic regression is beneficial to researchers that need to analyze the relationship of independent variables to a dependent variable that might have dichotomous outcomes such as true/false, present/not present, etc. Students are taught how to perform and interpret a binary logistic regression in SPSS and R.

Issues of diversity, equity, and inclusion when gathering demographic data are discussed. Students are coached through creating an online survey using Google Forms based on surveys of their own choosing. Additionally, methods of direct data entry into SPSS and R, reading and saving files, as well as file nomenclature are reviewed.

Verbs are typically the most grammatically complicated and diverse constituents within any clause structure. The information presented in this chapter is not intended to be an exhaustive resource; rather, my goal is to introduce foundational concepts that can support your own research of additional features. The first section introduces tense and aspect, two key types of inflections that occur with verbs, and mood and evidential marking are introduced in the second section. The third section explores negation strategies and auxiliary verbs, while the fourth dives into valency-changing inflections, including the passive voice. By the end of this chapter, you will have made decisions about marking verbs in clause structures and will be able to translate basic clauses into your language.

This chapter focuses on the art of translation now that you have enough components inyour language to begin using it to express a variety of concepts and ideas. The first section introduces general translation practices, discussing the importance of translating an intended meaning rather than substituting one language’s words for another. The second section provides examples of how you can use translation as an exercise of language expansion, creating new vocabulary and constructions as needed to communicate a particular meaning. At the end of this chapter, you will be asked to translate a short text into your conlang and to write an original text in your language to showcase your language and its features.

You have used IPA to document your language’s words and their features, but this chapter introduces other options for writing your conlang, beginning with a brief overview of different types of writing systems. The second section introduces romanization strategies, which utilize standard keyboard characters to represent sounds in a language. The third section discusses how you can adapt an existing orthography to your conlang, provided it makes sense for your speakers to have access to that existing orthography. Finally, the fourth section discusses the process of creating a unique orthography if that is the direction you want to take for your language. By the end of this chapter, you will decide how you might romanize your language and whether you will use an orthography to represent the written form of your language.

The focus of this chapter is on sounds. The chapter begins with an introduction to the International Phonetic Alphabet to show how you can represent sounds with written symbols. The discussion turns to phonetic features of sounds and how they are connected to physical features of human anatomy. The second section focuses on the production and features of consonant sounds while the third section explores vowels and their features. The final section discusses how to create a balanced sound inventory when selecting sounds for your language. By the end of this chapter, you will select the consonant and vowel sounds you want to incorporate in your conlang.

This chapter begins with a discussion of the “replication crisis,” where studies are sometimes published without resources so that other researchers can replicate studies. Studies that have been retracted due to p-hacking, HARKing, or plainly falsifying data are presented. The importance of publishing data and detailing methods is discussed to improve readers’ confidence in studies and science. Students are guided through the major sections of a study proposal (introduction / literature review, planned methods, planned analysis, and discussion) and what steps are needed for each section. The American Psychological Association (APA) style is reviewed for formatting the proposal including the title page, paragraphs, citations, references, running headers, section headers, and statistical notation. The Institutional Review Board (IRB) is discussed along with common ethical considerations that are needed for a research study.

The Introduction outlines the central themes of economic history, focusing on the efficient use of resources and its implications for welfare. It explains how societies have historically used natural, human and manufactured resources to improve living standards, exploring the critical roles of technology and institutions in driving efficiency and growth. The chapter introduces the concept of total factor productivity as a measure of economic efficiency, and emphasizes how historical developments have shaped the wealth of nations. It also links economic history to contemporary concerns by discussing the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals and their relevance to resource management and welfare. By tracing historical improvements in efficiency and productivity, the Introduction sets the stage for understanding how economic history informs modern debates on sustainability and inequality.

This chapter examines economic growth in pre-industrial Europe, focusing on the agricultural sector as the primary driver of progress. It explores how technological innovations in farming, such as crop rotation and selective breeding, allowed for sustained economic growth despite limited resources. The chapter also discusses the Great Divergence, a period in which Europe’s economic development began to outpace that of other regions, and investigates the factors behind this phenomenon. By analysing the nature of pre-industrial growth, the chapter demonstrates how advances in agriculture and slow, but continuous, technological progress in other sectors provided the basis for Europe’s later industrialization. It highlights the importance of both internal and external factors in shaping Europe’s economic trajectory.

This chapter introduces constructed languages (conlangs) by first differentiating them from natlangs and then debunking common misconceptions about them. Along with defining major types of conlangs, one of the goals of this chapter is to identify the linguistic features that make conlangs languages. By the end of this chapter, you will make some important initial decisions about your conlang and conlanging goals.