This chapter builds on the grammatical foundation provided in Chapters 7 and 8, specifically diving into grammatical features of nouns. In this chapter, you will be introduced to three major ways nouns can inflect in languages: number, noun class, and case. The examples provided throughout each section focus on the most common types of inflections found in languages to help inspire you as you make noun-marking decisions for your conlang. The final section explores connections between adpositions and case. The exercises at the end of this chapter ask you to decide whether you will mark nouns for number, noun class, and/or case and, if so, how.

From this point on in the textbook, the student researcher has finished collecting data for the study and is performing the data analysis. In this chapter, students learn how to clean and screen their data as well as checking the relationships between independent variables (IVs) and the dependent variable (DV). Basic statistical calculations (e.g., mean, standard deviation, normal distribution) are reviewed and applied. How to create survey factors (e.g., by calculating the total or mean of a subset of survey items) is reviewed. Instructions for calculating Pearson r among the hypotheses’ variables are provided along with reasoning (and warnings) for using correlations to investigate relationships among the data. Step-by-step instructions are provided for both SPSS and R.

This chapter defines the term “natural language” (natlang) and introduces the field of linguistics. A major theme of the chapter is that languages change over time. The chapter demonstrates how you can systematically study those changes to understand how and why the language shifts typically occur. Language change is further connected to the development of language families and the importance of contact among speakers of different languages. At the end of the chapter, you will be asked to apply these concepts to a brief study of natural languages.

This chapter examines the long-term development of inequality in Europe, focusing on disparities between individuals, households and nations. It explores how social and economic inequalities have evolved over time, influenced by economic forces as well as factors such as gender, race and class. The chapter also considers global inequality, discussing the gap between rich and poor nations and the factors that have contributed to economic divergence or convergence. By analysing the historical roots of inequality and the role of institutions in mitigating or exacerbating it, the chapter provides insights into the social and economic consequences of unequal income distribution and how it shapes economic policy debates today.

This chapter focuses on how sounds can shift when they occur in particular environments. It introduces key concepts from the field of phonology, such as phonemes and allophones, and demonstrates how sounds commonly change during speech production. The major types of sound shifts discussed in this chapter include assimilation, deletion, insertion, and dissimilation. By the end of the chapter, you will be asked to apply phonological rules to a small data set and create a set of potential phonological shifts you can incorporate into your language.

In this chapter, differences between quantitative and qualitative studies are presented. Students are taught the basic skills for performing a qualitative study, such as performing interviews, observations, and researching material culture. Methods for analyzing these qualitative data such as finding themes and creating concept maps are discussed. Students are encouraged to use qualitative analytical methods with a quantitative study (i.e., a mixed-methods approach) to help create a richer, more detailed study.

This chapter introduces phonotactics, which includes syllable structure and stress assignment. These features work together to create the overall aesthetic feel of a language, which is, perhaps, the most noticeable and salient feature of a spoken language. By the end of the chapter, you will make decisions about how the sounds of your language will come together to form syllables and how stress is assigned within words.

This chapter focuses on the role of institutions in shaping economic efficiency and development throughout European history. It argues that institutional innovations have been central to Europe’s long-term economic progress, even though inefficient institutions have sometimes persisted due to vested interests. We first discuss what is considered a development-friendly institutional setup, and then analyse relevant historical institutions such as serfdom, open fields, guilds, cooperatives, the modern business firm and socialist central planning to understand their specific (in)efficiency contributions and distributional consequences.

This chapter analyses the relationship between population growth and resource constraints in European history, focusing on the Malthusian theory, which posits that population growth leads to stagnation due to finite resources. The chapter challenges this view by examining how technological innovations, agricultural improvements and changes in fertility strategies affected population dynamics. It explores how societies adapted to resource constraints and avoided the Malthusian trap through mechanisms such as the demographic transition. The chapter also uses case studies such as the decline of the Roman Empire to discuss the relevance of simple models for interpreting historical processes and presents nuanced insights into the complex interplay between population, resources and economic development.

In previous chapters, student researchers were guided through the creation of basic graphs and charts to help visualize results. In this chapter, Mayer’s principals of multimedia learning are reviewed as they pertain to presenting information using graphics. Readers are brought through best practices with how to visually display information and facilitate an accurate transfer of meaning. Students are shown how to modify the charts and graphs that were presented in previous chapters are reviewed with step-by-step instructions in SPSS and R. Additionally, students are taught how to create more detailed charts in R.