Responding to India's continuing employment crisis, despite high rates of economic growth, the Skill India policy enacted in 2009, and re-enacted in 2014 as the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY), was designed to train both rural and urban youth, who have high school diplomas or college degrees, in vocational skills. Skirting the issue of the lack of growth of jobs in India, the purpose of Skill India was to prepare a young workforce to meet the needs of the emerging urban economy, particularly the service sector, which leads economic growth in the current phase. This paradigm of creating a workforce, rather than work, speaks to several critical debates framing India's development; thus, a central question that has been asked is, can services indeed lead to growth in the context of a labour surplus economy? This question becomes moot given that the growth of jobs in services has been mainly in the lower rungs, or in low-value-added work. Service jobs at lower levels are typically in the informal sector with low salaries and unprotected tenures. Finally, if skills are seen as the bridge that will bring unemployed rural youth into the fold of cities, the validity of this vision is deeply challenged given the low quality of jobs and lives that the urban informal sector offers, often compelling young men and women to return to their villages. Youth have turned their backs on agriculture but remain deeply connected to their rural roots, not only as home but as a possible place from where better lives can be built if sustainable work can be found. It is in this space that the Skill India policy falters.

This chapter surveys the transformation of the North African countryside in Late Antiquity, analysing shifts in settlement patterns, agricultural production and economic structures from the late Roman period through the Arab conquest in 689. It highlights regional variations across ancient provinces such as Mauretania, Numidia, Africa Proconsularis, Byzacena and Tripolitana, emphasising that the rural landscape did not experience uniform decline but rather underwent adaptation and reorganisation. Discussing North Africa’s role as a key supplier of olive oil, grain, wine and fine ceramics, notably African Red Slip (ARS) pottery, the chapter challenges earlier assumptions that economic collapse followed the Vandal conquest in 439, showing instead that new industrialised production methods led to increased ARS exports during the late fifth century. However, the Byzantine reconquest in 539 did not reintegrate the region into the larger imperial economy as expected, instead fostering greater regionalisation and isolation. This contribution also addresses the Christianisation of the countryside, analysing the spread of monastic estates and bishoprics and their impact on land use. By examining archaeological surveys and pottery distribution, the chapter concludes that rural settlement patterns in North Africa were shaped by a combination of environmental, economic and political factors.

This chapter centres on the rural landscapes of the late Roman Eastern Empire, focusing on settlement patterns, economic structures and the integration of rural communities into broader imperial networks. It challenges older historiographical models that depict the countryside as declining in tandem with the urban world, arguing instead that many rural regions remained vibrant and adapted to shifting political and economic conditions. This investigation draws on archaeological surveys, architectural remains and epigraphic evidence to analyse how different rural settlements evolved. It contrasts the village-based economies of the Eastern Mediterranean with the villa-centric model of the western provinces, emphasising that villages in the East continued to thrive well into the Byzantine period. The chapter also highlights the role of religious transformation, documenting the conversion of pagan sanctuaries into Christian sites and the spread of monastic settlements in rural landscapes. Another key theme is connectivity, particularly how infrastructure such as roads and maritime trade routes sustained rural economies. The discussion of transhumance and agricultural production further illustrates the dynamism of the eastern countryside. While certain regions experienced decline due to warfare or shifting imperial priorities, the chapter presents the eastern rural world as an adaptive, resilient environment, rather than one in simple decay.

This chapter explores the urban and architectural evolution of Ravenna in Late Antiquity, focusing on its transformation from a relatively modest Roman settlement into a major political and religious centre. It examines how Ravenna served as the capital of the Western Roman Empire, the Ostrogothic Kingdom and the Byzantine Exarchate of Italy between 400 and 725 CE. The discussion highlights how Ravenna’s geographical setting – a marshy coastal landscape – shaped its urban development and archaeological record. The study assesses the city’s infrastructure, including its walls, aqueducts, palaces and religious buildings, demonstrating how imperial patronage played a decisive role in its growth. The construction of monumental churches such as the Basilica of San Vitale and Sant’Apollinare in Classe is explored as evidence of Ravenna’s rising Christian prominence. The chapter also details the impact of Theoderic’s rule, particularly in the adaptation of Roman architectural traditions for Ostrogothic purposes. Under Byzantine rule, Ravenna became a centre of ecclesiastical power, reflected in continued church-building projects. Despite political upheavals and economic fluctuations, Ravenna remained a dynamic and influential city. The chapter concludes by pointing out the challenges of archaeological research in the area, emphasising how ongoing excavations continue to refine our understanding of Ravenna’s late antique legacy.

This chapter examines the evolution of monumental civic architecture in Late Antiquity, exploring how urban spaces and public buildings adapted to shifting political, social and economic conditions. Challenging the traditional ‘decline and fall’ narrative, it argues instead for a process of gradual transformation. While some cities in the Western Empire experienced a decline in public building activity, urban centres in the east continued to flourish, with new constructions and adaptations extending well into the Islamic period. In these cities, public buildings such as basilicas, baths and colonnaded streets were frequently repurposed rather than abandoned. Christianity played a crucial role in this shift, as bishops assumed civic responsibilities and redirected resources towards maintaining and adapting urban infrastructure. As a result, late antique cities remained vibrant, with economic and social life persisting despite structural changes. The chapter also highlights the significance of imperial patronage and contributions from the local elite in sustaining urban architecture. By reassessing civic architecture through archaeological and textual evidence, the study presents a more nuanced perspective – one that emphasises urban resilience and transformation rather than outright decline.

This chapter investigates the material culture of saint veneration in Late Antiquity, detailing how objects, architecture and inscriptions influenced devotional practices. It draws on a range of sources to investigate how saints were honoured and how their presence was made tangible through physical artefacts. The chapter argues that material culture played a crucial role in facilitating interactions between the living and the divine. Saints’ memorials, inscriptions and relics served as focal points for devotion, strengthening communal identity and religious experience. Key examples include the engraved mensa (table) from Khirbet Oum el-Ahdam, which was used for communal feasting in honour of martyrs, and wall paintings from Wadi Sarga, which depict saints in orans postures, underscoring their role as intercessors. The evidence suggests that material artefacts did more than simply commemorate saints – they actively shaped devotional practices and evolved over time to meet the needs of different generations.

This chapter explores the archaeology of late antique Rome, focusing on the city’s transformation between the third and eighth centuries. It examines architectural, epigraphic and material evidence to trace changes in urban infrastructure, social organisation and religious practices. Recent archaeological projects, including excavations at the Crypta Balbi and the imperial fora, have yielded significant insights into the reuse of urban spaces and shifting patterns of habitation. This study challenges earlier narratives that describe late antique Rome as a city in decline, instead presenting it as a dynamic environment where old structures were adapted to new functions. A major emphasis is placed on the integration of Christian and imperial elements in the cityscape. This investigation highlights the construction of monumental churches such as St Peter’s and the Lateran Basilica, which repurposed materials from earlier Roman buildings, reinforcing Christian authority while maintaining connections to imperial traditions. Another important aspect discussed is the evolution of private housing, with evidence indicating a gradual shift from elite domus to smaller, more communal living arrangements. The chapter concludes that late antique Rome was characterised by both continuity and transformation.