This chapter presents a synthesis of results on the patterns of metaphor use in corpora of public discourse in Hong Kong. The corpora cover three critical periods: before and after the transfer of Hong Kong’s sovereignty from Great Britain to China in 1997, and during the COVID-19 crisis. We summarise and compare the use of metaphors over time in terms of two types of changes: fundamental changes involving the transformation of source domains and incremental changes involving the transformation of source-to-target domain mapping principles. We find that patterns of diachronic metaphor variations in Hong Kong English (HKE) reflect changes in target domains based on different social dynamics, especially shifting priorities in societal issues, such as a FREE ECONOMY and ELECTIONS. We also demonstrate that the shifts in focused target domains extend to mapping principles in frequently used source domains, such as WAR, JOURNEY and BUILDING. By examining metaphors and their associated mappings across different varieties of HKE, this study contributes to a framework for understanding cultural differences within the lexical-conceptual dimension of HKE.

This chapter starts out from the serendipitous observation of patterns where look forward to is complemented not by a verbal -ing form (as would be expected by standard grammars) but by a plain infinitive, as in I’m looking forward to meet you. It investigates the spread and frequency of this construction in a wide range of corpora, some of which also allow a diachronic comparison, and considers several potentially conditioning factors. Grammatically, this pattern can be explained as a case of reanalysis in the process of structural transmission, showcasing structural simplification that may characterise second-language acquisition. The form to, the final element in the phrasal-prepositional verb under discussion, is reinterpreted as a homonymic but functionally different form, the to infinitive marker. The results clearly support the hypothesis that the ’look forward to + plain infinitive’ pattern constitutes more than mere performance errors and appears to represent an ’embryonic’ manifestation of an incipient change, with a strong focus in Asian Englishes, and possibly with Indian English as an epicentre, although the trend may have been reversed recently in formal registers.

This chapter begins with a historical account of the expansion of English. Theoretical models of world Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca are outlined. The role of language contact in the development of world Englishes is discussed, along with the nature of pidgins and creoles. A section deals with controversies about the use of English, especially in education, in former British colonies. Differences in phonology, grammar, and vocabulary among some of the major varieties of English are outlined. The section on vocabulary uses evidence from the Oxford English Dictionary and notes the recent restoration of Indigenous place names in several countries.

The use of the English language in many countries around the world greatly facilitates international communication. However, linguists have long pointed out that differences between established and emerging dialects of English may lead to miscommunication, especially because many users of the language may not be aware of many of these differences. Such issues may be particularly acute in high-stakes communicative endeavours such as persuading others to change their opinion or engage in a certain action. Psychologists have previously explored this construct mainly in experimental settings, whereas the present chapter uses a large database (‘corpus’) of natural language. The chapter thus provides an empirical, corpus-based analysis of the linguistic expression of persuasion across 21 international dialects (‘varieties’) of English from countries where English is widely used as a first or second language. Results indicate that there are substantial differences in the degree of overt expression of persuasion, with South Asian varieties of English indicating the lowest levels and (West) African varieties that greatest level of overt persuasion. The chapter concludes by discussing possible explanations of these patterns, implications for international communication as well as avenues for more detailed analyses of particular linguistic features involved in persuasion.