The trend toward democratization in countries across the globe – that began in the 1980s – challenged scholars to pursue two potentially contradictory goals. On the one hand, researchers sought to increase analytic differentiation so as to capture the diverse forms of democracy that had emerged. On the other hand, they sought to avoid the problem of conceptual stretching that arose if the concept of democracy was applied to cases for which, by relevant scholarly standards, it was not appropriate. This chapter argues that the pursuit of these two goals led to a proliferation of conceptual innovations, including numerous subtypes of democracy – that is to say, democracy “with adjectives.” This chapter explores the strengths and weaknesses of alternative strategies that emerged: descending and climbing Sartori’s ladder of generality, which is a kind hierarchy; generating “diminished” subtypes of democracy, based on a part–whole hierarchy; shifting the overarching concept, of which democracy was treated as a specific type; and changing the definition of democracy. This chapter elucidates these strategies and explores trade-offs among them. A brief Glossary of Terms is included.

Concept formation is critical for many social scientific goals, yet it often appears neglected. This chapter underscores the importance of concepts in empirical work oriented toward causal inference, including experiments. It explores the role of conceptual hierarchies, typologies, and dichotomies both for causal attribution and for assessing generalizability. Using an example from the Metaketa Initiative, this chapter highlights the value of Sartori’s ladder of abstraction for fostering cumulative learning from experimental research. Wider use of the tools of concept formation can aid assessment of both the internal and external validity of causal claims.

When scholars extend their models and hypotheses to encompass additional cases, they may need to adapt their concepts to fit new contexts. Giovanni Sartori’s work on conceptual traveling and conceptual stretching provides helpful guidance in addressing this fundamental task. Sartori’s framework draws on what may be called a classical understanding of conceptual hierarchies. Each successive concept as one moves down the hierarchy is a “kind of” in relation to the one above it – such that it may be called a kind hierarchy. Concepts have clear boundaries and defining properties shared by all cases deemed to fit the concept. This chapter examines the challenge to this framework presented by two nonclassical approaches: Wittgenstein’s family resemblances and Lakoff’s radial structures. According to these alternative perspectives, concepts may not be sharply bounded, and some attributes may not be shared by all cases viewed as corresponding to the concept. Because they only partly correspond to the concept, this may be called a part–whole hierarchy. With such patterns, strict application of a classical framework can lead to abandoning concepts prematurely or modifying them inappropriately. This chapter discusses solutions to these problems, suggesting that these two forms of hierarchy can productively be used together.

This chapter illustrates the importance of ongoing engagement with conceptual analysis when conducting research. It focuses on clientelism, a phenomenon in which politicians provide material benefits to citizens in direct exchange for political support. The chapter presents four typologies that refine the overarching concept of clientelism by revealing underlying dimensions, explicating subtypes, and reducing conceptual ambiguity. More specifically, the typologies clarify four key points: (1) campaign handouts can be used for both persuasion and mobilization; (2) campaign handouts can also shape the composition of the electorate; (3) a key distinction exists between electoral and relational clientelism; and (4) some scholarly usage of the term “vote buying” involves conceptual stretching. More broadly, the chapter suggests that continued engagement with conceptual analysis can yield important insights and analytical leverage. The typologies discussed not only improve conceptual clarity but also prove to be foundational for further formal and empirical research on the topic.

This autobiographical essay by David Collier traces the evolution of his interest in concept analysis within political science. Sparked by a challenging dissertation defense on the distinction between squatter settlements and slums, Collier was motivated to better understand and refine social science concepts. He reflects on foundational influences, including Sartori’s notion of concepts as “data containers,” and explores how defining and variable properties can structure meaningful comparisons. Collier highlights the role of vivid, resonant terminology in shaping scholarly communication, drawing on examples from Hirschman, Krasner, and Murra. He credits influential mentors such as Philippe Schmitter and colleagues such as Henry Brady, as well as inspiration from the Ostroms and cognitive linguists such as Lakoff and Rosch. The essay underscores the importance of typologies, disaggregation, and sensitivity to conceptual stretching in empirical research, using the concept of corporatism and the idea of “critical junctures” as case illustrations. Collier also recounts his teaching experiences and collaborations, which reinforced his belief in the methodological and substantive value of rigorous concept work. The piece serves as both a personal narrative and a theoretical introduction to the study of concepts, setting the stage for the volume’s broader exploration of conceptual innovation in the social sciences.

Chapter 7 discusses the process of “theoretical drift.” Science operates on a gift economy wherein researchers share knowledge freely, but this means losing control over how ideas are used, which can result in outsiders using them in new ways that harm the reputation of their creators. The chapter describes five sociological processes that led to theoretical drift, including rampant faddishness, the abstraction and elaboration of individual concepts from the main theory, the relativity of the creative frontier, the sheer volume of new research on the topic, and conceptual travel and stretching. The chapter concludes by detailing RA members’ efforts to regain control of their theoretical narrative through public performances and by publishing articles and books to re-establish their original theoretical vision.

outlines the history of citizenship as a political concept, showing that the dominant view of citizenship today is still primarily seen as nationally provided and tied inextricably to legal status, despite global and urban scholars challenging its claims of exclusivity and immigration scholars challenging its singular focus on legal status. The limited power of these critiques is due, in part, to the fuzziness of claims regarding rights and identities. The authors make a fresh start in the systematic conceptualization of citizenship, showing that legal status is not the gateway to rights as is often assumed. In its place, they develop a concept of federated citizenship as a parallel set of rights along five key dimensions, with the provision of those rights varying by jurisdiction – federal, state, and local. They also lay out important differences between progressive citizenship, regressive citizenship, and reinforcing citizenship. Finally, they move from concept formation to the development of indicators for state citizenship regimes, which sets the stage for the empirical analysis is subsequent chapters on Black citizenship rights and immigrant citizenship rights.