Chapter 3 begins with how the Donatist controversy shaped Augustine’s theology of justification by faith because the Donatists represented the real possibility of having faith without charity. The chapter then turns to the key features of Augustine’s theology of justification formed by the Pelagian controversy, especially participation in Christ’s righteousness. Both controversies pressed Augustine to consider how justification is by faith if faith sometimes fails to justify, as in Donatists, lax catechumens, and impenitent Christians. In both de spiritu et littera (The Spirit and the Letter) and his sermons, Augustine addresses this through a deeper psychology of faith: faith only obtains the grace of justification when it is motivated by hope and fails if it is motivated primarily by fear. The chapter concludes with de fide et operibus (Faith and Works), exploring Augustine’s understanding of faith, works, and charity, his criticism of sola fide (faith alone), and his development of a new terminology for justifying faith: fides Christi (faith in Christ).

To explore what it meant to own and possess in the eighteenth century, Keeping Hold looks to instances in which people lost possessions and how they responded to such experiences. Chapter 2 begins the book’s focus on loss and does so by looking to urban sites. It looks to the city of the eighteenth century: London. The capital was of growing importance in this period as an economic powerhouse and social hub. Guidebooks emerged as an important genre for those seeking to comprehend London’s densely filled and ever-lengthening streets. The chapter explores these sources and finds how the capital was increasingly imagined as a site of deception and loss, where possessions might be pickpocketed or simply left in the bustle and in which servants and apprentices regularly ran away. The chapter examines how eighteenth-century Londoners responded to such perceived threats by utilising technologies of security, such as pockets and collars. By doing so they worked to prevent loss.

This chapter begins with an in-depth exploration of neuroanatomy, including macroscopic features like the cerebral cortex, brain stem, and basal ganglia, as well as the pathways between the brain and body such as the spinal cord and cranial nerves. Against this background, four potential applications are introduced: first, the creation of motor prosthetics that use brain activity to control artificial limbs; second, the development of sensory prosthetics to restore vision or hearing; third, the artificial reactivation of memories through targeted brain stimulation; and fourth, the treatment of anxiety by incorporating either neuroimaging or brain stimulation. Each application is framed in terms of the modularity debate, which focuses on whether specific psychological functions can be localized to distinct brain regions. These four examples illustrate some cases in which it is useful to localize a behavioral function within a single region, but also where it may be more useful to appreciate either the diversity that exists within a region or the coordination that exists across regions.

Analyzes the superficial and underlying motives of initiators for the use of force.

Chapter 1 examines the leading theory of chilling effects – chilling effects as fear of legal harm – a legalistic account most often employed by lawyers and judges in the United States, Canada, and beyond. The author explores its historical and intellectual origins, key actors that have articulated and influenced the theory, and argues this predominant conventional account is too narrow, legalistic, and deeply flawed theoretically and empirically, and cannot explain, predict, or understand chilling effects in a wide variety of contexts. As such, it only contributes to skepticism about chilling effects, rather than dispelling them.

Chapter 2 critically examines privacy-based conventional theories, which approach chilling effects as a result of privacy harms. While privacy-based theories of chilling effects improve on legal accounts, they are also too narrow and cannot explain chilling effects in a variety of contexts, including even forms of privacy-related chilling effects. Moreover, courts and judges have also remained deeply skeptical of privacy-based theories. To address these limitations and fully understand the threat chilling effects pose to freedom, fundamental rights, and democracy we need a new understanding of chilling effects that moves beyond conventional accounts.

In the early 1980s, relations between the superpowers deteriorated from severely strained to acutely confrontational, and fears of nuclear war gripped people in both countries. Yet by 1989 relations improved so much that most informed observers believed the Cold War was ending. This chapter goes beyond conventional explanations of the transformation that have focused on the policies of President Ronald Reagan and General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev. It demonstrates that citizen activists also played important roles. In the early 1980s, a very popular nuclear freeze movement compelled the Reagan administration to change its harsh rhetoric and to show greater interest in negotiations with the Soviet Union. Then, large-scale exchanges of Soviet and American citizens, which both Reagan and Gorbachev came to support, challenged demonic stereotypes and humanized the supposed enemies. The chapter also describes how American and Soviet films reflected and contributed to the dramatic changes, from the nightmarish depiction of a communist invasion of the United States in Red Dawn (1984) to the dramatization of a partnership between Soviet and American police officers in Red Heat (1988).

This chapter discusses the emotional brain from a brain networks perspective, which contrasts with attempts to assign a unique or emotion-specific role to individual brain regions engaged in emotion phenomena. Here, the emphasis will be on the collective function of coalitions of brain areas that carry out functions that are often considered important for emotion. We will call these coalitions “networks” or “circuits” interchangeably. Brain networks/circuits are composed of both cortical and noncortical regions. Brain regions carry out one or more processes (“computations”), and the degree to which they can be functionally specialized is a matter of much debate. As our emphasis will be on networks/circuits, we will focus mostly on how brain regions contribute to overall functions. We consider fear and related phenomena, such as anxiety, as illustrative examples given the extensive literature across species in this area.

A common feature of all existing organisms is their ability to adapt, survive, and even thrive in the face of danger. Evolution has endowed organisms with a myriad of defensive mechanisms, from bodily phenotypes and sensory apparatus to learning mechanisms. Humans are no different, and a wide variety of defensive mechanisms has allowed us to adapt to changing landscapes and threats. Yet, we are unique in our capacity to predict the future, to learn from others through many streams of communication vicariously, and to experience emotions consciously. In this chapter, we briefly go through the evolutionary history of defensive behaviors and how they are guided by a canonical set of ecological conditions, by the characteristics of the threat, and by the organisms’ repertoire of cognitive and sensory abilities. We explore the converging mechanisms across species and highlight the uniqueness of humans, including the rich internal representations of the dangers that allow us to experience a large array of emotions.

Trauma refers to an event or series of events that overwhelms the capacities of the person. Trauma disrupts all developing systems from brain to self. Trauma is especially devastating in the early years because of the nature of development. Development is cumulative and follows the principle of differentiation. Basic forms are laid down and then refined; therefore, there is a lasting impact of early disruption. Trauma can be especially devasting with regard to meaning making, because the major impact of trauma is to compromise integration. Integration is precisely what meaning making is. When early integration is compromised, gaps in the mind in the form of dissociation will result.

The aesthetics of the sublime, as it emerged in the eighteenth century, has frequently been seen as part of a process of secularization: What is “absolutely great” now becomes the object of an aesthetic experience that need have no reference to the divine or to religion. Kant in particular has been accorded a key role in the development of a modern aesthetics that establishes the autonomy of art and of the aesthetic vis-à-vis both religion and politics. Setting out from a seldom-read passage in Kant’s “Analytic of the Sublime” on the power of the sublime to liberate the imagination from tutelage by the church and by the state, this chapter traces the intimate connection in Kant’s text between religion, political emancipation, and the sublime in order to challenge widely shared if frequently unstated assumptions about the secular status of the sublime and of Kantian aesthetics more broadly. The sublime emerges as power that resists containment within the modern divisions between politics, religion, and aesthetics. In the process, Kant’s text is read as providing an implicit critique of the logic of secularism avant la lettre.

This is the story of how I circuitously journeyed into my life’s work. I began as a music major, then thought I would be a music therapist, then decided on psychology as the major because I was better at it. A graduate school sojourn in Michigan, a fateful conversation with John Hagen, nabbing a summer research position with Eleanor Maccoby and spending the summer trying to scare babies with a cymbal-clapping monkey. Chutzpah! Telling Eleanor I would help with the next phase of their study if she made me a graduate student. From scaring babies to giving them control over a scary toy to realizing I was studying the key factor in stress regulation to cortisol to a seminar offered by Seymour Levine and the discovery of the field of developmental psychoneuroendocrinology. I was in my fourth year of graduate school before I knew where I was going. Take heart students. You will figure it out if you keep asking questions.