The beginning of iron technology in Greece represents the earliest known phase of iron production and use in Europe. Traditionally, scholars have attributed the emergence of iron technology in Greece to the diffusion of knowledge from the eastern Mediterranean. Over the past twenty years, numerous excavations have brought to light objects and industrial waste that allow us to reconsider how iron working started, how it developed, and its broader impact on the sociocultural changes in ancient Greece. This chapter proposes an alternative interpretation based on a novel interdisciplinary methodology that combines the archaeological examination of style and context with metallographic and chemical analysis to fingerprint the local characteristics of iron technology. The chapter concludes that iron technology appeared as a local, most probably accidental, innovation and was not the result of diffusion. It further argues that the localized technological traditions in both smelting and manufacturing that emerged in Iron Age Greece continued and solidified in the following periods.

This chapter explores the role of metalwork in Late Antiquity, with particular focus on the production, distribution and significance of gold, silver, copper, iron, lead and tin artefacts. It examines metal extraction processes, manufacturing techniques and the various ways in which metal objects were used in both secular and religious contexts. Drawing on archaeological evidence, chemical analysis and written sources, the chapter highlights how the study of metalwork provides valuable insights into the economic structures and political landscape of the late antique period. Rather than reflecting decline, late antique metalwork demonstrates adaptation to new demands. Gold and silver, used for coinage, jewellery and ceremonial objects, continued to be produced in both state-run and private workshops, with Constantinople, Antioch and Alexandria emerging as key centres. Silver plate played an essential role in imperial gift-giving and church donations, while stamped silver objects indicate a sophisticated state-controlled production system. The chapter also examines the continued production of copper alloys and iron, which were essential for military equipment, everyday utensils and monumental architecture, as well as lead and tin, which were widely used in construction, plumbing and pilgrimage objects.

Evidence for violence and organised warfare in Iron Age Europe is varied and abundant, but it is not clear how frequently large-scale conflict occurred. Weapons, including especially swords, spears and lances, are common in graves and deposits. Defensive weapons, such as shields, helmets and body armour, also occur but are less common. The fortification of hilltops for defensive purposes is characteristic in much of Iron Age Europe. Representations of warriors, including stone statues bearing arms and scenes of marching troops, show how the weapons were deployed by soldiers. Only a few actual battlefields have been investigated. Weapons and landscape defences surely played important symbolic roles in the Iron Age, but the extent of armed conflict is not yet fully clear.

This chapter considers the importance of scribal skills, particularly letter writing, through a focus on the insha (epistolary) treatises of the Bahmani vizier, long-distance merchant and scholar, Mahmud Gavan. Against a background of court factionalism, Gavan advocated the cultivation of a genre of writing, insha or letter writing, which not only had strong practical uses for communication at court, but had the potential, if manipulated adroitly enough, to transform society, the recipient of the letter, and the individual writing the letter.

This chapter focuses on the martial skills of sword fighting, archery and wrestling. Courtiers were the military elite: a high position was frequently the reward of prowess in battle, and the ability to direct men and attract followers in daily life was directly related to one’s skill in battle. However, martial skills were not merely a prerequisite for worldly success. I examine the tale of Yusuf, who – by virtue of his skills as a wrestler – rose from lowly service in the kitchens of the sultan’s palace to become one of the most powerful courtiers in the Bahmani sultanate, and eventually the founder of the independent sultanate of Bijapur. In historical accounts like this, the refinement of martial skills and the perfection of one’s physical body came to be framed as a key ethical endeavour through the ideal of javanmardi, or ‘young manliness’.