The anthropology and soteriology of western Christianity were radically reinterpreted in the fifth century CE by Augustine of Hippo, who constructed a fictional ‘Pelagianism’ to delegitimise opposition to his new theology of original sin, an absolutist account of prevenient grace, and predestination interpreted as preordainment. This chapter gives an outline of the issues involved in this attempt to relocate orthodoxy, the course of events relating to Pelagius and his defence of eastern ascetic Christianity, and the afterlife of controversy over this new account of the anthropology and soteriology of Christianity.

This chapter explores the economy of the later Roman Empire, with special emphasis on resource management, economic structures and regional variations. It highlights how land, labour and capital functioned within a largely agrarian system, with agriculture serving as the primary economic driver and tax base. The chapter examines diverse sources, including archaeological surveys, historical texts, coinage and environmental data. It analyses the effects of political instability, regional differentiation and resource distribution on economic trends. Case studies from North Gaul, Iberia, Italy and the Eastern Mediterranean reveal that economic activity was influenced by both local conditions and imperial policies. The study also incorporates ecological data, such as pollen analysis and lead pollution levels, to assess economic fluctuations. A central argument is that the later Roman economy was not a uniform system but a collection of interconnected regional economies. While political fragmentation led to economic contractions in some areas, others adapted through local specialisation and changing trade networks. This study thus challenges the view of economic collapse, instead emphasising resilience and adaptation, and calling for an interdisciplinary approach to better understand the complexities of late Roman economic life and its long-term transformations.

The iconoclast refusal to accept the use of images, particularly of Christ, in public and private worship in Byzantium, is often condemned as a heretical movement. But its emphasis on symbolic representations (the Cross and the Eucharist) and on spiritual veneration was essentially a reform of potentially idolatrous church practice.

This chapter examines the urban evolution of cities in the Eastern Mediterranean during Late Antiquity, focusing on their transformation from classical urban centres to more utilitarian and fortified settlements. It argues that rather than experiencing outright decline, cities in the East adapted to changing political, economic and religious realities. Archaeological evidence demonstrates a marked shift from monumental civic spaces to structures that emphasised military defence, religious identity and practical urban needs. The author discusses key aspects of urban change, including the gradual abandonment of traditional agoras, the decline of monumental temples and the repurposing of public buildings for Christian churches and administrative centres. The chapter also explores the impact of imperial policies on urban planning in reshaping cityscapes through large-scale church construction, fortification efforts and infrastructure projects. The increased militarisation of cities, with the establishment of fortified kastra and urban defences, is another major theme. Regional variations are examined, showing that while some cities, such as Constantinople and Thessaloniki, thrived under imperial patronage, others faced economic stagnation and contraction. The chapter concludes that while Late Antiquity brought profound transformations to urban life, cities in the East remained resilient, adapting to new social and political realities rather than simply collapsing.

Chapter 6 shifts its attention to the southern extremities of the lake and illustrates historical connections tying the lake together from another thematical angle: commercial flows. It examines the broader regional trade networks around Lake Kivu, emphasizing the interconnectedness of Goma and Bukavu in Congo with Gisenyi and Cyangugu in Rwanda. It introduces the concept of a “transboundary space,” shaped not only by colonial border impositions but also by preexisting social, political, and ecological asymmetries. The asymmetries created an “arbitrage economy,” enabling Africans, particularly those close to the border, to exploit differences across regions.

The chapter further considers cattle trade between the center of Rwanda and the westerns shores of Lake Kivu. This cattle trade connected different cultural and ecological zones, fostering commercial interactions long before colonial intervention. The chapter argues that the border accentuated existing disparities, emphasizing differences in the distribution and societal meanings of cattle. Despite colonial attempts to regulate the cattle trade, African traders managed to capitalize on their “liminality” – the ability to inhabit different spheres simultaneously. The chapter further underscores the significance of this “liminality” as it facilitated the negotiation of oppressive colonial structures. At times this “liminality” was embedded in formalized bonds of friendship, sometimes formalized through bloodpacts. Highlighting the everyday impact of borders demonstrates how they could be used to circumvent colonial policies, even though they could never undo the consequences of colonialism.

Chapter 18 offers a critical analysis of the types of remedies sought in climate cases and examines their implications within the legal landscape. Drawing on a comprehensive analysis of climate lawsuits from around the world, the authors provide insights into the diverse range of remedies that have been sought to address the adverse impacts of climate change. They then shed light on the different considerations and approaches that courts have taken when determining appropriate remedies. In their exploration of emerging best practices, the authors highlight instances where courts have adopted innovative and transformative approaches to remedies in climate litigation. They examine creative legal mechanisms that go beyond traditional compensatory measures and explore the potential of remedies such as injunctive relief, restitution, and declaratory judgments to address the multifaceted challenges posed by climate change.

This chapter examines the urban evolution of Trier in Late Antiquity, focusing on its transformation from a Roman provincial centre to an imperial capital. It discusses the city’s development from its foundation as Augusta Treverorum in the first century BCE to its peak as a key administrative and military hub in the late third and fourth centuries. This contribution integrates archaeological evidence, historical texts and urban-planning analysis, highlighting how Trier’s strategic location along the Moselle River contributed to its economic and political rise. The chapter also considers major infrastructure projects, including the construction of city walls, bridges, baths, an amphitheatre and a palace complex, demonstrating how imperial patronage shaped the city’s expansion. A significant theme is Trier’s role as an imperial residence under Constantine and his successors, with the city becoming a centre for coin production, governance and military strategy. The Christianisation of Trier is another focus, detailing the construction of basilicas, episcopal complexes and martyr shrines, which established it as an important religious centre. Despite political upheavals and invasions, Trier remained influential into the early medieval period, with the chapter concluding that its evolution reflects broader patterns of imperial consolidation, economic resilience and religious transformation in Late Antiquity.