Two centuries after independence, is colonialism still a valid explanation for Spanish America’s inequities and lagging economic performance? This chapter makes the case that the legacies of colonialism run at a deeper and much more local level than commonly acknowledged and publicly discussed. In particular, factoring-in the administrative practices of the Spanish Empire reveals how eighteenth-century office-selling undermined local governance in numerous ways: Shaping the spatial distribution of authoritarian and ethnic enclaves; the recurrence of violent conflict in certain areas; and ultimately, the under-provision of public goods leading to subnational differences in living standards we observe today. The chapter also outlines the limits of current explanations – focused on factor endowments, national institutions, or postcolonial state-building – to explain local-level differences. The chapter concludes with a roadmap describing the rest of the book.

This chapter examines the intended and unintended consequences of American hierarchy on partner states. It analyzes the impact of increased state capacity resulting from American economic hierarchy on civil conflict, human rights, democratization, and inequality. The results suggest that economic hierarchy reduces conflict, human rights abuses, and promotes democracy primarily through direct effects rather than via increased state capacity. However, both economic and security hierarchy exacerbate political inequalities. The chapter highlights the complex implications of American hierarchy.

Malcolm X’s prison letters not only chronicle his relationship with his relatives, most significantly with Ella, but also provide a portal through which readers begin to gather some notion of the profound thinker and activist he would become. The letters are a bedrock of his growth and development, a form of self-discovery and rumination that will guide him to a higher level of social and political commitment. The exchange of missives between him and Elijah Muhammad is like a graduate course in history and Black Nationalism, all of which shaped his quest for enlightenment and leadership. Readers get a chance to look over his shoulder as he grapples with his incarceration and how best to use this time to improve himself as a writer, thinker, and debater. In effect, this is the beginning of Malcolm X who would evolve into El Hajj Malik El-Shabazz, an internationalist and spokesperson for the oppressed and marginalized.

This sixth chapter explores issues surrounding collective acts of conscience. Specifically, it focuses on the issue of complicity as well as institutional conscience. Complicity in conscience is a frequent subject of discussion, as many conscience claims, such as referrals of treatment or supervision, rely on notions of complicity. However, complicity in conscience is significantly different from complicity in other areas of law and ethics, and there is insufficient exploration as to why. This chapter provides a firmer grounding for complicity. From there, the chapter moves to a discussion of institutional conscience. The chapter explores the reasons generally used in support of institutional conscience but argues that most do not survive scrutiny. Instead, it claims that institutional conscience does not provide any adequate protection for individual conscience and, instead, often overrides or limits it. It then provides reasons for an alternative view of how institutions ought to engage with conscience.

Peru’s Amazon is the site of a violent and fast-moving gold-mining rush, which has caused divides within Indigenous communities and devastating environmental impacts from the mercury used in gold extractivism. There has been a massive increase in illegal or informal gold mining, especially in Peru’s Madre de Dios province. Tens of thousands of miners operate on rafts in the rivers or dig for gold by increasingly mechanized means. In Madre de Dios there is a gold-mining RDPE that explains the bulk of land and forest use. In addition to an exploration of the dynamics of gold extractivism, this chapter also assesses the conflicts and resistance at play in this context. Indigenous communities, especially in the Amazon, are currently facing huge extractivist pressures, which has started to polarize many communities and change their relationship with the extractivist phenomena. Some community members have started to extract gold illegally and destructively, while most resist these temptations, invoking nonmodernist cosmologies and understandings that place barriers to extractivist expansions.

Verbs are typically the most grammatically complicated and diverse constituents within any clause structure. The information presented in this chapter is not intended to be an exhaustive resource; rather, my goal is to introduce foundational concepts that can support your own research of additional features. The first section introduces tense and aspect, two key types of inflections that occur with verbs, and mood and evidential marking are introduced in the second section. The third section explores negation strategies and auxiliary verbs, while the fourth dives into valency-changing inflections, including the passive voice. By the end of this chapter, you will have made decisions about marking verbs in clause structures and will be able to translate basic clauses into your language.

The connection between olfaction and emotions has been established across many subjects. Considering the anatomy of the olfactory system, the canonical targets of olfactory projection neurons are part of and associated with nonolfactory neural circuits, widely summarized as the limbic system. Presumably, partly due to this strong connection between olfaction and the limbic system, odors can directly evoke emotions and result in emotional autobiographical memories. Accordingly, odors have been used to modify emotions via nocturnal exposure, active inhalation, and olfactory training. Odor pleasantness impacts these beneficial effects. The valence of odors changes resting state functional connectivity in regions associated with emotions, memory, motivation, and action control. Considering all the above, olfactory loss negatively influences human behaviors in various life domains, including ingestion, hazard avoidance, and social communication, often resulting in a reduced quality of life and well-being, which in turn may be associated with depressive disorders.

Angela Davis, George Jackson, and other prominent Black intellectuals and radicals shaped abolition in different ways. The evolution and popularization of abolition promoted by Angela Davis was influenced by her own traumatic incarceration. Jon Jackson, the younger brother of George Jackson, had worked with Angela Davis to support the incarcerated men through the Soledad Brothers Defense Committee. Without her permission, in August 1970, Jonathan Jackson took guns belonging to Angela Davis to wage a raid at Marin County Courthouse in order to take hostages that could be exchanged to free Black prisoners. Prison guards shot and killed Jon Jackson, two Black prisoners, and a white judge in a stationary van. Davis fled the state, fearing reprisal from reactionaries, and was arrested by the FBI in October. During her incarceration, George Jackson was also killed by prison guard(s) in August 1971. Acquitted of all charges in 1972, Angela Davis advocated for abolition and over decades aligned abolition with advocacy academics; her work also increasingly focused on gender leadership of women and feminism, as noted in Women, Race and Class.