This introduction presents an overview of the key concepts discussed in the subsequent chapters of this book. The book offers a new understanding of the methods of religious instruction and the uses of religious texts in Anglo-Saxon England. It argues that Anglo-Saxon authors recognize the Ascension and its theology as essentially liminal in nature, that is, as concerned with boundaries and dual states and dwelling in dual places. The book focuses on the footprints of Christ at the place of Ascension function as a material symbol for Christ's dual nature and his physical absence but spiritual presence. It examines the motif of the gates of hell and heaven to draw attention to Christ's crossing of boundaries and the moment of salvation when he enters heaven. The book shows the Ascension is unusual in Anglo-Saxon literature and early medieval vernacular literature because of the exceptional variety of the surviving materials.

Within the context of Greek mathematics, as developed by figures such as Euclid, Aristarchus, Archimedes, Eratosthenes and Apollonius, the contribution of Hipparchus is not nearly so well established. Circumstantial evidence suggests that he was the principal developer of trigonometry, in both its plane and spherical forms, but no ancient source credits him with this directly. It is likely that he was driven to devise trigonometric techniques in order to solve certain specific astronomical problems involving oblique ascensions that had already been discussed in general geometrical terms by Autolycus and Euclid. In pursuit of this, he devised a chord table which related the lengths of lines to subtended angles. Using this, he was able to provide exact solutions to specific astronomical problems concerning the risings and settings of stars, as well solar and lunar theory. As suggested by slender evidence in Plutarch, Hipparchus may also have worked on algebra and combinatorics. From evidence in other writers also, it appears that he took an interest in some aspects of what today is called physics.

Hipparchus is often mentioned by ancient writers, but these reports vary greatly in quality and quantity. The two principal sources are Ptolemy and Strabo, who contribute most of what is known about the general scope of his astronomical and geographical work, respectively. By comparison, other writers tend to be less expert in their reporting or are very brief. These include Cicero, Geminus, Cleomedes, Pliny the Elder, Theon of Smyrna, Vettius Valens, Galen, Sextus Empiricus, Pappus, Firmicus, Theon of Alexandria, as well as several anonymous texts. However, they are still valuable in building up an overall picture of Hipparchus and his contribution to astronomy and mathematics. Many of these ancient sources are discussed here.

Hipparchus realised that for calculation to be effective and useful it must proceed from good observational practice. Without accuracy in the latter, the former, however sophisticated, cannot provide usable answers. Accordingly, he would have made many observations of astronomical facts and phenomena for himself, and for this he would have needed instrumentation. Very little is known for sure about what tools he used. The Antikythera Mechanism, which is roughly contemporary with Hipparchus, demonstrates the engineering skills that were available in his time, and on the reasonable assumption that such skills did not advance much by the time of Ptolemy, the latter’s description of his own instruments provides a basis for discussion. Also important in this context are notions of accuracy, precision and units of measurement. Evidence is brought to bear on these issues in relation to Hipparchus, and how they should be interpreted in the context of his works, using information gleaned from both him and from Ptolemy.

This chapter examines visual representations of the Ascension and especially its liminality in Anglo-Saxon art. It analyses the iconography of the Ascension in Anglo-Saxon manuscript illuminations. The chapter considers the light of some of the central doctrines associated with the Ascension: Christ's dual nature, his physical absence but spiritual presence, and the totus Christus. It focuses on the disappearing Christ as imagery both native to Anglo-Saxon England and speaking pointedly to the perception of the Ascension as liminal. The chapter argues that the disappearing Christ is a liminal image that corresponds to and concretely visualizes the liminality of Ascension theology. The feet in the visual iconography invite a comparative reading with the footprints of Christ in the Old English texts, which marked the starting point of the Ascension in Anglo-Saxon England.

Constantine patronized new construction in cities in the western provinces. Inscriptions celebrated the renewal of the forum at Arles and imperial assistance at Lepcis Magna in North Africa. Dedications also exposed the working of the imperial administration, in particular the roles and the number of praetorian prefects.

This chapter is concerned with Pindar’s poems as performance events, compounds of words, vocal melody, and instrumental music. My central claim is that such performances, as well as being events that are listened to, direct and refashion the act of listening. Following an overview of Pindar’s references to music, with which he positions himself as a creative participant in music’s still-developing history, I elaborate this claim in readings of Nemean 4, fr. 152, and Paean 8. In each of these texts, Pindar’s combinations of unusual diction, intertextuality, rhythmical framing, and other aspects of poetic form enable his audiences to listen to words and their meanings anew, and thereby to apprehend musical sound taking on fresh significance.

This chapter discusses the dazzling array of creativity that is language and metaphor in Pindar, in terms of its impact on us as its consumers and in terms of the questions that aspects of lyric diction and style ask of us. The discussion reaffirms the importance of close reading from the inside out as the key to appreciating the nature and challenge of Pindaric lyric. It assesses the powers and risks that come with lyric language in detail and across time, as readers and audiences are stopped in their tracks. The chapter discusses the experiential potential of a representative selection of examples taken from across the corpus, in three sections. Section 1, ‘Options’, investigates how Pindaric lyric fosters both a freedom of expression and an encouragement to audiences and readers to keep their minds open in response. Section 2, ‘Colours of Desire’, explores the sustained intensificatory effects of marked imagery in one extended example from Olympian 6. Section 3, ‘Access and Appropriateness’, explores how the hyperbolic nature of lyric imagery may raise further questions about our commitments to the sentiments that Pindaric lyric finds itself able to project.

In western provinces inscriptions described Constantine as the son of deified Constantius I and a descendant of Maximian, his father-in-law. Dedications mapped Constantine’s expanding jurisdiction, from Gaul and Spain into Italy and North Africa, then into the Balkan provinces. In particular, cities in North Africa honored him with dedications and statues. One new title was “greatest”; but the use of the Christian chi-rho monogram was limited.

This chapter examines the ways in which the Old English Martyrology (OEM) and Blickling Homily (BH) 11 reveal the symbolic force of the footprint motif by integrating it with standard Ascension teachings. It argues that the footprints lend themselves so aptly to teaching theology because the motif can be used to express a range of theological ideas in different contexts. The chapter examines the transmission history of the footprint motif from early pilgrimage reports to Anglo-Saxon England. It demonstrates the innovative use of the footprints by Anglo-Saxon authors, who seem to delight particularly in the footprints and the opportunity to express Ascension doctrines through them. The Anglo-Saxon authors actively shape their source materials in the service of teaching theology. The chapter suggests that the presumed audiences and the mixed content of the OEM and BH 11 explain the interest in the footprint motif.

Throughout Italy cities erected dedications and statues honoring Constantine and his family. Dedications also honored the many senators and wealthy municipal notables who were patrons and benefactors for their hometowns. At Hispellum a famous inscription memorialized imperial support for the construction of a new temple honoring Constantine’s imperial dynasty.