This chapter looks at the syntax of adjuncts, beginning with the head adjunction operation which adjoins one head to another (3.1). The remainder of the chapter looks at phrasal adjunction operations which adjoin one phrase to another. 3.2 looks at how adverbial/prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses and topics can be adjoined to TP, and thereby be positioned between complementiser and subject. 3.3 argues that adverbial/prepositional phrases and extraposed constituents can be adjoined to VP. 3.4 argues that adnominal adjectival phrases are adjoined to noun phrases, and considers possible ways of accounting for the relative ordering of structures containing multiple adnominal adjectival phrases. 3.5 proposes a related analysis of adnominal prepositional phrases and relative clauses as NP adjuncts. The recursive nature of adjunction and the nature of constraints on adjunction are also discussed. The chapter concludes with a summary (3.6), and a set of bibliographical notes (3.7). Accompanying free-to-download materials include a Workbook and Answerbook for students, and an Answerbook and set of PowerPoints for teachers.

This chapter begins (1.1) by looking at prescriptive and descriptive approaches to grammar, and at different sources of linguistic data. It goes on to discuss the approach to syntax in traditional grammar, looking at grammatical categories (1.2) and grammatical functions (1.3). 1.4 considers aspects of syntax which are potentially universal before going on to consider the nature of universals, the architecture of grammars, and the Strong Minimalist Thesis. 1.5 examines parameters of variation between languages, before turning to consider the role of parameter-setting in language acquisition, and outlining Principles and Parameters Theory (1.6). The chapter concludes with a summary (1.7), and a set of bibliographical notes (1.8). There is a free-to-download Students’ Workbook that includes a separate set of exercise material for each core section and a Students’ Answerbook. The free-to-download Teachers’ Answerbook provides detailed written answers for every single exercise example. The free-to-download Powerpoints provide a more vivid and visual representation of the material in each core section of the chapter.

This chapter provides an introduction to syntactic structure and how it is represented by tree diagrams. It begins (2.1) with an account of the Merge operation by which words can be combined together to form phrases, and phrases combined together to form clauses. It then goes on to examine the nature of heads, complements and specifiers (2.2), and the nature of projections (2.3). Next (2.4), it outlines eight ways of testing syntactic structure, before turning to look at how hierarchical structure (and the relation c-command) plays a central role in the description of phenomena like the licensing of polarity items (2.5) and the binding of anaphors (2.6). It also briefly touches on the possibility of developing a theory of bare phrase structure, and of treating syntactic structures as inherently unordered, with linearisation taking place in the phonological component. The chapter concludes with a summary (2.7), and a set of bibliographical notes (2.8). Accompanying free-to-download materials include a Workbook for students, and an Answerbook and set of PowerPoints for teachers: each of these contain a separate set of materials for each core section of the chapter.

Chapter 4 outlines key properties of language development and explores the question whether the acquisition of an additional or foreign language is fundamentally different compared to the acquisition of a primary language in infancy. Drawing on key findings from studies of second language acquisition involving a range of language pairs, it is shown that some properties of an additional language are acquired naturally despite apparent difficulties caused by input and transfer from previous language knowledge. However, some properties of grammar and language use remain persistently difficult, even despite input and teaching of the properties. We conclude with the claim that the knowledge of Virtual Grammar and its grammatical concepts provides a way for teachers to understand the learnability issues faced by their language learners so that they can then make use of appropriate approaches to address these issues.

Chapter 5 draws together the different aspects of language, grammar and acquisition to explore applications to language education and teaching. We first address the question of the purposes of language education and based on these, we explore dichotomies of nativeness versus foreignness; awareness versus ability; and grammar acquisition versus grammar skills. This permits a reconsideration of familiar problems in language teaching, such as the use of the L1 in foreign language teaching, or the development of meta-linguistic knowledge compared to communicative competence. The use of Virtual Grammar and grammatical concepts as a way to enhance and develop language awareness to address educational goals of language teaching is outlined. The chapter concludes by considering, in general terms, the role of descriptive and theoretical linguistics in applied linguistics.

Chapter 2 discusses the questions ‘what is language’ and ‘what is a language’. We explore properties of standard national languages as compared to regional dialects, registers, and pidgin and creole varieties. This survey illustrates that language seen as an abstract ability underlies all forms of linguistic variation and that the same sorts of grammatical concepts underlie any variety while questions of prestige or standard usage are fundamentally social and cultural issues. The interaction of social, cultural and linguistic issues is discussed from the perspective of language education.

Chapter 3 surveys different conceptualisations of grammar and what these mean for questions of language education and notions of ‘correct’ or ‘proper’ grammar. Comparisons of descriptive, prescriptive, reference and pedagogical grammar lead to specific questions of what it is that is pedagogical about pedagogical grammar. In order to leverage the idea of using grammatical concepts for pedagogical purposes, we develop the idea of Virtual Grammar. This encompasses abstract linguistic properties that regulate language variation and language acquisition. We outline how this idea can be used as a way to sharpen awareness of linguistic properties in forms that are useful for language education.

This chapter sets the scene for the book by surveying the terrain of academic linguistics. Issues connected to language teaching and the place of grammar in language teaching are situated with respect to different fundamental concepts in linguistics and the influence these have had on the development of teaching methodologies. The idea of grammatical concepts as an approach to developing language awareness among language learners is introduced and illustrated on the basis of data from a range of languages.

This chapter presents the double-Headed analysis of relative clauses and argues for a pre-nominal merger of relative clauses on the basis of the general left-right asymmetry found in the languages of the world.

This chapter considers certain special issues, from the case of split or coordinated Heads, to a selective extraction from complex NPs, to a particular construction knows as 'double dependence', which is attested in a number of languages.