This chapter surveys the implications of linguistic variation and diversity for language instruction. Sociolinguistic research amply documents the occurrence of regional and social diversity in all languages; variability is a universal property of human language. Everyone has implicit awareness of this in their native languages, and it needs focused attention in second language teaching and learning. It is a disservice to students to teach them a normative standard and neglect all else. Achieving communicative competence in a language requires some familiarity with dialect diversity, social and ethnic varieties, stylistic practices, and the social meaning of linguistic forms. It is important to teach basic facts about the social status of a language in the places it is spoken, and the presence of other languages: French is dominant in France, co-official with English in Canada, but mainly an L2 in ‘Francophone’ Africa; most Argentines are monolingual L1 Spanish speakers, but half of Bolivians speak indigenous languages as L1. Ongoing language change is important for learners to know about, both to comprehend the new forms, and to be aware of how they will be perceived.

The fairness of criminal jury trial is predicated on the jury being able to clearly understand and accurately apply the criminal standard of proof. Among legal scholars, there is a strong international consensus that the criminal standard of proof as a legal concept is a very high standard that must be met by the prosecution and judged subjectively by the jury after hearing and assessing all the evidence. There is very little consensus, though, on how best to convey this standard to the jury. In this chapter we consider the practice in the jurisdiction of England & Wales of using sure as an ordinary language legal synonym of beyond reasonable doubt. In doing so, we outline a set of legal-discursive practices that transform the notion of ‘being sure’ from a simple gut assessment to an immensely confusing legal prescription. These practices are then exemplified through a judge’s excruciating attempt to clarify the use of sure and the Court of Appeal’s misreading of the fundamental issue. The chapter ends with some recommendations.

The functional-typological approach to language recognizes that language features are shaped by functional forces: the strengths and limitations of human cognition and perception in creative tension with communitive needs. The results of this tension are evident in the phonology as well as in the morphosyntax. A functional-typological understanding of language reveals what features are likely to be common to different languages, as well as what features are likely to co-occur in the same language. This predictive knowledge prepares the teacher for what she will encounter in students L1, and helps her prepare students for what they will encounter in L2. Awareness of typologically less common features in particular will help the teacher to know where special effort may be needed to help students meet the challenge. An understanding of functional forces such as iconicity, metaphorical extension and language change also allows the L2 teacher to explain how a particular feature is motivated and not merely arbitrary, helping the learner to see how those facts make sense and thereby making them easier to learn.

This chapter argues that linguists should expand the data used in linguistics education to include second language data and that expanding linguistic education to include second language and multilingualism at its core would put the field of linguistics in a better position to bridge the gap between second language education programs and linguistics. It gives several arguments for including second language data in linguistics education: Second language data are natural language data and should be included in models of language, second language acquisition and first language acquisition share many characteristics, knowledge of second language acquisition will put graduates in a stronger position for academic jobs, and including second language data in linguistics education can promote an awareness of linguistic diversity and work toward a more inclusive field. It offers some suggestions for how to incorporate second language data into linguistics courses and a discusses some of the barriers to this proposal. It concludes with two examples of exercises which use second language data to reinforce basic linguistic concepts.

This chapter highlights the significance of intercultural communication in immigration contexts, focusing on how migration practitioners develop the specialised professional communication skills needed to successfully do their work. The data comes from the 12-month graduate course required for non-lawyers to register as migration agents in Australia. Drawing on a collection of role-play activities, where students practice conducting client interviews, and debriefing discussions following the role-plays, the analysis examines how (mis)understanding is produced and navigated. The chapter argues that language proficiency, linguistic diversity and gaps in contextual knowledge cannot fully explain the inception or under-detection of misunderstandings; but rather that these are also produced through the participants’ ongoing discursive choices. This has important implications for the design of teaching and learning materials for training migration practitioners who assist migrant applicants to complete complex and demanding legal processes.

This chapter discusses the importance of conducting discourse analysis in L2 teaching and studying pragmatic norms in L2 learning. Without the knowledge about discourse and pragmatics, L2 learners might have difficulty conducting phatic communication, comprehending implicatures, performing speech acts, and appearing polite in L2 social interactions, which could lead to negative pragmatic transfer and intercultural misunderstandings. L2 learners’ motivation to interact in L2, attitude about L2 culture, or agency to accommodate or acculturate might be influenced as well. The chapter demonstrates how language teachers can analyze the L2 discourse together with L2 learners and provide pragmatics instruction to help them develop their pragmatic competence. It also displays some contextual factors that can affect L2 pragmatics learning and pedagogical activities that can promote L2 pragmatics learning.

This chapter examines the ways in which barristers signpost new topics and topic changes when they cross-examine vulnerable witnesses in criminal trials. Topic signposting is recommended in professional good practice guidelines and toolkits when questioning vulnerable witnesses to avoid the rapid changing of topics that can be seen in traditional cross-examination. Rapidly changing topics can potentially confuse or disorient vulnerable witnesses and topic signposting is thought to help in focusing witness attention and give them time to adjust to new topics. Drawing on transcripts of 56 cross-examinations in criminal trials across the UK and Ireland, the analysis in this chapter explores the extent to which barristers are using topic signposting when questioning vulnerable witnesses, what the most common forms of signposting are, and whether it helps witnesses give their best evidence. The chapter also reveals instances in which topic signposting can give rise to unexpected difficulties in interactions with vulnerable witnesses.

Drawing on their classroom experiences, five secondary school language educators present how training in linguistics has positively impacted their pedagogical practices and increased student engagement, enjoyment, and motivation. These teachers of French, German, Latin, and Spanish describe how they bring linguistics into the L2 classroom, giving concrete examples of how the metalinguistic and social awareness that comes with “doing linguistics” can help students learn new languages by drawing on their L1 strengths, as well as gain an appreciation of the beauty and complexity of language, contributing to a welcoming classroom for students of all language backgrounds. These examples, alongside the student feedback described in the chapter, demonstrate that training teachers in linguistics has the potential to keep students curious and motivated, improving both student retention and learning outcomes in secondary L2 classes.

In an effort to strengthen linguistic foundations in L2 endeavors and inspire closer interaction and mutual benefit for the allied disciplines, the Conclusion brings together the primary takeaways of the book, proposes future directions for study, and poses remaining questions for those research veins.

This chapter shares the effects of a multi-year project to integrate explicit pronunciation instruction into the curriculum of intermediate Spanish courses at a liberal arts undergraduate university. The pedagogical materials incorporate foundational linguistic principles, such as awareness of the expert unconscious knowledge of a speaker’s native language, an appreciation of the linguistic diversity present across cultures, and a scientific approach to creating and testing hypotheses about how a language works as part of L2 language learning. The authors and researchers found effects in L2 learning beyond the scope of these specific topics: students made connections from pronunciation to other areas of the grammar; students used their expert native language knowledge to recognize patterns in the L2; students demonstrated increased appreciation for dialectical diversity, including heritage speaker productions; and students demonstrated greater comfort with using the L2 more frequently and in more contexts. The chapter closes with a discussion of the benefits to instructors as well as some recommendations for how to incorporate linguistic foundations in other language classes.

This chapter surveys the scholarship on linguistics in education and analyzes the status of linguistics in language education master’s programs. Using the National Center for Education Statistics’ Classification of Instructional Programs (CIP) system to define the data field, we searched the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System for institutions conferring degrees between 2011-2020 for CIP code 13.14, the designation for master’s programs in Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. From this list, we analyzed available curricula for both MA/MS TESOL degree and MA/MS in elementary, secondary, or adult education language teacher training. Considering programs across 255 institutions, we analyzed linguistics courses as required, elective, or not present. Results reveal that linguistics is integrated at variable rates. Focusing on four core subdisciplines, TESOL fares better: Introductory linguistics was required 69% of the time, sociolinguistics 41.5%, syntax/grammar 53%, and second language acquisition (SLA) 70%. A more dismal picture appears for the other language education group: Introductory linguistics was required 6% of the time, sociolinguistics 6%, syntax/grammar 4%, and SLA 12%. This study demonstrates that language teachers require more robust linguistics education to better equip them for serving language learners’ needs.

This chapter focuses on the production of official records of police–suspect interviews in England & Wales, and the flaws in their current use as criminal evidence. It reveals the importance of the administrative processes undergone by an interviewee’s words post-interview, revealing how they shape – indeed, create – the resulting evidential product, especially through the institutional practice of summarising parts of the interaction. The journey from ‘live’ interaction in an interview room to an official evidential record is largely taken for granted within the legal system, with little-to-no internal or external scrutiny; this chapter argues that it should instead be recognised as a substantial contribution to – and transformation of – the resulting evidence, with all the dangers that potentially entails. Using data from the ‘For The Record’ project, including interview recordings and official police records alongside focus groups with practitioners, it demonstrates the importance for practitioners and researchers alike to pay closer attention to the format of the data they are examining, and to actively reflect on and seek out the many voices and actors which have shaped it.