The 24-item Male Body Attitudes Scale (MBAS; Tylka et al., 2005) assesses body (muscularity, body fat, height) dissatisfaction with male-identifying individuals, as these three forms of dissatisfaction have been identified as important to men within qualitative research. The MBAS can be administered online or in-person to male-identifying adolescents and adults and is free to use in any setting. This chapter first discusses the development of the MBAS and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the MBAS has been shown to have a 3-factor structure in exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, with muscularity dissatisfaction, body fat dissatisfaction, and height dissatisfaction being the three factors. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and incremental validity support the use of the MBAS. Next, this chapter provides the MBAS items in their entirety, instructions for administering it to participants, item response scale, and scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are available for readers.

At the time of writing, there is widespread concern about rising rates of mental distress and ill-health, particularly in some groups. This concern increased rapidly during the Covid-19 pandemic, with some commentators predicting huge increases in mental ill-health. Subsequent economic crises in many countries, rising inequalities, the looming climate catastrophe, and growing political instability, polarisation, and conflict, both within and between countries, further compound these concerns. Questions abound about the nature and extent of a mental health crisis across populations, social groups, and time; about the causes of increasing rates, e.g. about the complex interplay of societal, interpersonal, individual, and biological processes; and about what should or can be done to address the challenge of rising rates, at policy, community, and service levels. These types of questions – of the distribution and causes of mental distress and ill-health in populations and of how to respond and intervene – are precisely the questions epidemiology, the science of population health, is concerned with. These questions are fundamental to our understandings of and responses to mental distress and ill-health.

The Muscle Silhouette Measure (MSM) and Fat Silhouette Measure (FSM) are pictorial scales that assess perceptions of male body image (Frederick et al., 2007). They each contain eight images, with the MSM progressing from non-muscular to very muscular, and the FSM very low body fat to very high body fat. Consistent with self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987), these measures assess men’s perceptions of their current bodies and their ideal bodies, and the discrepancy between these perceptions. It has also been used to assess women’s perceptions of the most attractive male body type and to code representations of muscularity level in popular magazines. The MSM and FSM can be administered to adolescents and/or adults and is free to use. This chapter describes the development and psychometrics of the MSM and FSM. The images were drawn by an artist based on photos of men in the Atlas of Men (Sheldon et al., 1954). Test-retest reliability was high for reports of current and ideal body. It was high for the MSM and moderate for the FSM for the self-ideal discrepancy. The chapter provides the images, response scale, and scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 7-item Body Image Disturbance Questionnaire (BIDQ; Cash et al., 2004) assesses three facets of negative body image: body dissatisfaction, body distress (or dysphoria), and body dysfunction (or impairment). Five of the seven items have an open-ended follow-up question that allows participants to clarify their responses, which is useful in clinical contexts and mixed methods research. The BIDQ can be administered online or in-person to adolescents or adults; it is free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the BIDQ and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the BIDQ has been found to have a unidimensional factor structure. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and predictive validity support the use of the BIDQ. Next, this chapter provides all BIDQ items along with their individualized response scales, instructions for administering the BIDQ to participants, and the scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as how to obtain the scale, permissions, copyright, and contact information are provided for readers.

The Body Image Shame Scale (BISS; Duarte et al., 2015) is a measure of internal and external shame focused specifically on body image. Internal shame includes negative self-evaluations and desires to hide or conceal the body. External shame includes an individual’s perceptions that others criticize and think negatively about their appearance and avoidance of social situations in which others may judge their physical appearance. The BISS has a 14-item adult version and a 9-item adolescent version. Both versions can be administered online or in-person and is free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the BISS and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the BISS has a 2-factor structure (internal body shame, external body shame) within exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses along with a higher-order body shame factor. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and incremental validity support the use of the BISS. Next, this chapter provides the BISS items (both adolescent and adult versions) in their entirety, instructions for administration and scoring, and the item response scale. Links to known translations are included. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are available for readers.

The 18-item Social Media Appearance Preoccupation Scale (SMAPS) has three subscales that measure social comparison (6 items), self-presentation (7 items), and general activity (5 items) related to appearance when engaging in visual online content, especially using social media. The subscales can form a total score or be used to focus on one or more of the three subscales of online appearance preoccupation, which allows for a shorter measure. The SMAPS was designed with five issues in mind: 1) image sharing activity, 2) investment and self-presentation, 3) social comparison, 4) active versus passive social media use, and 5) negative responses to social media. The SMAPS can be administered online or in-person and has been included in research with adolescents and young adults. The SMAPS is free to use. This chapter begins with a discussion of the development of the SMAPS from item generation to psychometric analyses, which is followed by sections with psychometric information, including the factor structure and invariance, and evidence of reliability and validity. Additional sections cover administration and scoring, the response scale, the items in their entirety, instructions for administration and scoring, and permissions, copyright and contact information are provided.

The 14-item Self-Objectification Beliefs and Behaviors Scale (SOBBS; Lindner & Tantleff-Dunn, 2017) assesses the extent to which individuals view themselves from the perspective of a sexually objectifying observer and treat their body as capable of representing their identity. The SOBBS can be administered online or in-person to adolescents and adults and is free to use in any setting. This chapter first discusses the development of the SOBBS and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the Self-Objectification Beliefs and Behaviors Scale has been found to have a two-factor structure within exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, with evidence of measurement invariance across gender and between binary transgender and non-binary individuals. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and incremental validity support the use of the SOBBS. Next, this chapter provides the SOBBS items in their entirety, instructions for administering the SOBBS to participants, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Known translations in Brazilian Portuguese and Chinese are provided. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 11-item Body Image Ideals Questionnaire (BIQ; Cash & Szymanski, 1995) approaches the assessment of evaluative body image by considering both appearance evaluation and importance within its structure. Each item has two parts: first respondents evaluate an aspect of their body (appearance, functionality) and then rate how important that specific aspect is to them. The BIQ can be administered online or in-person to adolescents or adults; it is free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the BIQ and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the BIQ has been found to have a 2-factor structure: Discrepancy (from body ideal) and Importance (of ideal to body image). Internal consistency reliability and convergent validity support the use of the BIQ, and the BIQ is responsive to therapeutic intervention. Next, this chapter provides all items and the response scales for both Discrepancy and Importance, instructions for administering the BIQ to participants, and scoring procedures. Logistics of use, such as how to obtain the scale, permissions, copyright, and contact information are provided for readers.

Childhood is an important time for cognitive development, during which time many factors can influence the development of complex functions like decision-making. The relationship between the HPA axis and stress reactions is of particular relevance in the development of decision-making. Fear signals activate the HPA axis, which results in cortisol production. Cortisol acts with adrenaline to form memories associated with emotional responses. This system develops early on and is dependent on exposure to stressful situations. Over activation during development, such as in cases of overexposure to stress, can result in elevated cortisol. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are understood to impact a range of cognitive function; however, the relationship between negative childhood experiences and decision-making is not a linear one; research is ongoing to unravel the complexities of this relationship.

The 9-item Breast Appreciation Scale (Swami et al., 2022) is a measure of is a measure of the degree to which cisgender women accept, hold favourable opinions toward, and respect their breasts and their functions, while also rejecting media-promoted breast ideals as the only form of beauty. The BrAS can be administered online or in-person to cisgender women and is free to use for non-commercial purposes. This chapter discusses the development of the BrAS before providing evidence of its psychometric properties. Specifically, scores on the BrAS have been found to have a unidimensional factor structure through exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Scores on the BrAS have adequate composite reliability and test-retest reliability, and good patterns of convergent, concurrent, discriminant, incremental, and known-groups validity. Next, this chapter provides the BrAS items in full instructions for administering the BrAS to participants, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Logistics of use are also provided for readers

The Children’s Body Image Scale (Truby & Paxton, 2002) is a simple pictorial representation of body size perception. Each body figure represents a body shape based on measured body mass index (BMI) across standard BMI percentiles for pre-pubertal boys and girls. The Children’s Body Image Scale is designed to be administered in-person to children aged 7-12 years. It is free to use in any setting. This chapter first discusses the development of the Children’s Body Image Scale, provides details of its psychometric qualities and how to use it in a practice or research setting. Internal consistency reliability and test-retest reliability are described including updated versions that align with changes to international percentile for body mass index. This chapter provides the Children’s Body Image in its entirety, instructions for administration, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Measures of cognitive and behavioral body image validated for use in this age group should be utilized in conjunction with the CBIS to obtain a comprehensive assessment of body image. There are various formats available, including images with a face that has Caucasian or Asian features and one with blurry features. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 34-item Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ) was first published in Cooper, Taylor, Cooper, and Fairburn (1987) with the items in an appendix of the paper. It assesses concerns with body shape that are typically found in women and which in extreme form have been linked to eating disorders. The BSQ is a self-report measure that can be administered online or in person. It is free to use unless used for commercial purposes. This chapter discusses the development of the BSQ, administration and timing. It then provides evidence of its psychometric explorations including strong reliability and discriminant validity. The BSQ has been found to have one main factor. The chapter then describes the two 16-item and four 8-item abbreviated forms and the translations available. Detail on the development of the measure are available included in Taylor’s doctoral thesis available on the BSQ website (https://https://www.psyctc.org/psyctc/root/tools/bsq/ & https://www.psyctc.org/psyctc/root/tools/bsq/bsq-thesis/).

The 18-item Body, Eating, and Exercise Comparison Orientation Measure (BEECOM; Fitzsimmons-Craft, Bardone-Cone, & Harney, 2012 assesses body-, eating-, and exercise-related social comparison tendencies. The BEECOM [scale abbreviation] can be administered online and in person to adults and is free to use in any setting. This chapter first discusses the development of the BEECOM and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the BEECOM has been found to have three-factor structure within exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses and demonstrates invariance across age, gender, and eating disorder history status. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and incremental validity support the use of the BEECOM. Next, this chapter provides the BEECOM items in their entirety, instructions for administering the BEECOM to participants, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. A nine-item abbreviated form is offered, and translations are provided. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Scale (ACSS; Henderson-King & Henderson-King, 2005) was developed to measure individuals’ attitudes about cosmetic surgery as a way of enhancing physical appearance. The 16-item ACSS is comprised of three subscales that assess 1) acceptance of cosmetic surgery for intrapersonal reasons (Intrapersonal), 2) acceptance of cosmetic surgery for social or career reasons (Social), and 3) the degree to which respondents would consider having cosmetic surgery to enhance their own attractiveness (Consider). This chapter briefly describes scale development and summarizes information about psychometric properties. Evidence is provided regarding its factor structure, reliability for the overall scale and each subscale, test-retest reliability, construct validity, and discriminant validity. While the ACSS was initially developed to be administered in its entirety, research focusing only on respondents’ interest in having cosmetic surgery, has relied solely on the items that comprise the Consider subscale. The scale can be administered online or in paper-and-pencil format. All items are presented in this chapter, as are the response scale and scoring instructions. Scholars wishing to use an unmodified version of the scale may do so without seeking further permission and at no cost. Additional information about permissions, copyright, translations, and contact information are also provided.

The 15-item Exposure to Body Positive Media Scale (Bissonette Mink & Szymanski, 2022) assesses exposure to body-positive media across two dimensions: (1) exposure to body acceptance and critiquing of appearance expectations and (2) non-exposure to the thin-ideal and societal expectation of bodies. The Exposure to Body Positive Media Scale can be administered online and/or in-person to adolescents and adults and is free to use in any setting for non-commercial purposes. This chapter first discusses the development of the Exposure to Body Positive Media Scale and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the Exposure to Body Positive Media Scale has been found to have a two-factor structure within exploratory factor analyses. Internal consistency reliability, content validity, and construct validity support the use of the Exposure to Body Positive Media Scale. Next, this chapter provides the Exposure to Body Positive Media Scale items in their entirety, instructions for administering the Exposure to Body Positive Media Scale to participants, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

Long assumed to have no real function, we now understand the importance of the prefrontal cortex for a wide range of cognitive functions, including decision-making. Some of the earliest understanding of the role of the prefrontal cortex came from the famous case study of Phineas Gage. Through a mining accident, Gage’s prefrontal cortex was extensively damaged. He showed no observable impairments in motor, sensory or memory skills. He however did show marked differences in personality and planning. Over the following decades, research built upon understanding of the role of the prefrontal cortex. Today, the prefrontal cortex as a region is recognised across many species and is considered the most evolutionarily advanced in humans. The current consensus is that prefrontal cortex is an integration area, integrating information from all over the brain.

The 8-item Enjoyment of Sexualization scale (ESS; Liss et al., 2011) assesses the extent to which women report enjoying sexualized attention from men. The ESS can be administered online or in person and is free to use in any setting. It was validated on heterosexual women but has also been used reliably with lesbian women. Other versions have been developed for use specifically men as well people with diverse gender identities. This chapter first discusses the development of the ESS and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the ESS has been found to have a single-factor structure within exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis and has been found to have high internal consistency reliability as well as convergent and discriminant validity. Next, this chapter provides the ESS items in their entirety, instructions for administering the ESS to participants, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Known translations are provided, and logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, instructions for use of alternative versions, and contact information, are provided for readers.