Visual analogue scales (VAS) are rating scales consisting of an individual item measuring a given construct typically coded 0 to 100 with labeled anchors. In body image research, VAS were originally developed to assess overall appearance and weight satisfaction, but have since been used as rating systems for other body image constructs (e.g., muscle dissatisfaction). VAS can be administered online and/or in-person to children, adolescents, and/or adults and are typically free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the original VAS and other body image VAS, and then provides evidence of VAS psychometrics. Regarding factor structure, VAS tend to be single-item constructs, although it is possible to combine and average multiple items to tap one construct. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity support the use of VAS for body image assessment. Next, this chapter provides examples of commonly used VAS, instructions for administration, the most commonly used item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Logistics of use are provided for readers.

The 20-item Body Dissatisfaction Frequency Duration Questionnaire (BDFDQ; Dondzilo et al., 2022) separately assesses two dimensions of trait body dissatisfaction: the frequency with which one experiences episodes of dissatisfaction with their shape and/or weight (i.e., body dissatisfaction frequency) and the duration of such episodes (i.e., body dissatisfaction duration). The BDFDQ can be administered online and/or in-person to adults and is free to use in any setting. This chapter first discusses the development of the BDFDQ and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the BDFDQ has been found to have a two-factor structure (body dissatisfaction frequency and body dissatisfaction duration) within confirmatory factors analyses and invariance across gender. Internal consistency reliability, convergent validity, divergent validity, and predictive validity support the use of the BDFDQ. Next, this chapter provides the BDFDQ items in their entirety, instructions for administering the BDFDQ to participants, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 14-item Body-Related Disclosure Scale (BRDS; Greer, Campione-Barr, & Lindell, 2015) can be administered in person or online to adolescents and young adults (ages 10-25 years) in the context of any close relationship (e.g., mother-child, father-child, siblings, friends, romantic partners) and is free to use in any setting. This chapter first discusses the development of the BRDS and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the Body-Related Disclosure Scale has been found to have a 2-factor structure within confirmatory factor analyses to include a positively-valence sub-scale and a negatively-valanced subscale. Internal consistency reliability supports the use of the BRDS. Next, this chapter provides the BRDS items in their entirety, instructions for administering the BRDS to participants, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 10-item Body Appreciation Scale-2 for Children (BAS-2C; Halliwell et al., 2017) is a measure of positive body image that assesses the degree to which children appreciate and accept their bodies, respect their bodies by attending to their needs, and the influence of inner positivity on outer demeanour. The BAS-2C can be administered online or in-person to children and is free to use in any setting. This chapter first discusses the development of the BAS-2C, followed by evidence of its psychometric properties. More specifically, the Body Appreciation Scale-2 for Children has been found to have a unidimensional factor structure within exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, with mixed evidence of measurement invariance across gender. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, and construct validity support the use of the BAS-2C. Next, this chapter provides the BAS-2C items in their entirety, instructions for administering the BAS-2C, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Abbreviated forms are offered, and known translations are provided. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The Body Matrices (Frederick & Peplau, 2007; Gray & Frederick, 2012) contain 28 computer-generated images of shirtless men varying in body fat and muscularity and 32 images of women in bikinis varying in body fat and breast size. The male matrices present seven levels of muscularity and four levels of body fat. The female matrices present eight levels of body fat and four levels of breast size. Each matrix contains all possible combinations of these body fat and muscularity/breast size level (e.g., slender women with large breasts; heavier women with smaller breasts). Consistent with self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987), they assess men’s and women’s perceptions of their current bodies and their ideal bodies, and discrepancies between these perceptions. They can be administered to adolescents and/or adults and are free to use. This chapter describes the development and psychometrics of The Body Matrices. Test-retest reliability was high for current and ideal bodies for men and women, and moderate to high for self-ideal discrepancies. BMI (self-reported height and weight) was strongly associated with current body images chosen by participants. The chapter provides the images, response scale, and scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 8-item Personal Safety Anxiety and Vigilance Scale (PSAVS; Calogero et al., 2019) assesses a person’s chronic and diffuse worry and concern about threats to their safety in relation to everyday experiences of sexual objectification and self-objectification. The PSAV construct is derived from objectification theory suggesting that personal safety represents an existential and embodied element of women’s lived experience that restricts their freedom. The PSAVS can be administered online and/or in-person to adolescents and adults who may experience gender-related and/or sexually focused violence. There is no cost associated with using the PSAVS. This chapter first discusses the development of the PSAVS and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the PSAVS has been found to have a unidimensional factor structure within exploratory and/or confirmatory factor analyses, and scores are variant (as expected due to power differential) between cis-gender women and men. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and incremental validity support the use of the PSAVS. Next, this chapter provides the PSAVS items in their entirety, its item response scale, and instructions for administration and scoring. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 10-item Appearance Anxiety Inventory (AAI; Veale et al., 2013) assesses cognitive processes and behaviours characteristic of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). The AAI is derived from a theoretical model of BDD that defines appearance anxiety as a person’s responses to their perceived flaws and shame about their appearance (e.g., appearance-focused attention, comparison, rumination, checking, and avoidance). The AAI can be administered online or in-person to adolescents and adults and is free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the AAI and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. Findings from exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis support a 2-factor structure (appearance avoidance, threat monitoring), yet a single factor accounted for most of the scale’s variance and therefore the AAI is calculated as a single appearance anxiety score. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, and sensitivity to change as a result of therapy support the use of the AAI. Next, this chapter provides the AAI items in their entirety, instructions for administering the AAI to participants, item response scale, and scoring procedure. Links to known translations are provided. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 13-item Appearance-Related Safety Behavior Scale (ARSB-S; Patel et al., 2022) assesses the frequency of engagement in in appearance-related safety behaviors (ARSBs; i.e., maladaptive behaviors used to reduce or manage appearance anxiety or fear of being negatively evaluated based on appearance) over the past month. The ARSB-S can be administered online and in person to adults and is free to use in any setting. This chapter discusses the development of the ARSB-S and provides evidence for its psychometric properties. More specifically, the ARSB-S has been found to have a two-factor structure within exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses with evidence for invariance based on gender. Internal consistency reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity support the use of the ARSB-S. Next, this chapter provides the ARSB-S items in their entirety, instructions for administering the scale to participants, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 12-item Physical Appearance Perfectionism Scale (PAPS; Yang & Stoeber, 2012) assesses a person’s concerns about and hopes for a perfect physical appearance. The PAPS can be administered online or in-person to adolescents and adults and is free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the PAPS and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the PAPS has been found to have a 2-factor structure (Worry About Imperfection, Hope For Perfection) within exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, and evidence has supported its invariance across gender. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity support the use of the PAPS. Next, this chapter provides the PAPS items in their entirety, instructions for administering the PAPS to participants, item response scale, and scoring procedure. Links to known translations are provided. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

This chapter describes the development and validation of a body-image assessment tool, the BIAS-BD. The scale consists of 17 male and 17 female contour-line drawings based on known anthropometric body dimensions of shoulder, chest, waist, hip breadth, thigh breadth, and upper leg breadth. The drawings correspond to a series of body weights ranging from 60% below the documented average to 140% above average. Differences between drawings represent a 5% change in body weight. Participants select a drawing that reflects their perceived size and their ideal size. The discrepancy between perceived and ideal size is a measure of body dissatisfaction. Test-retest reliability over a 2 –week interval was r = .86 for actual perceived size, r = .72 for ideal size, and r = .76 for body dissatisfaction. All reliability values are significantly greater than 0. No significant differences in reliability values between genders were obtained. Concurrent validity, measured as the correspondence between perceived and report size, was r = .76. Unlike other scales, the present scale uses figural drawings based on known body dimensions and has superior reliability and validity. It avoids several problems inherent in existing contour-line drawing scales, including scale coarseness, the presence of ethnic facial and body features, and the lack of documented reliability and validity in most previously published scales.

The 6-item Drive for Leanness Scale (DLS; Smolak & Murnen, 2008) was designed to measure concerns about leanness than anyone, regardless of gender, might share. Thus, the drive for leanness construct was derived to be distinct from concerns for thinness more common among women, and concerns about muscularity more common among men. The DLS can be administered online or in-person and is free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the DLS and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the DLS has a unidimensional factor structure within exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Internal consistency reliability and construct validity support the use of the DLS with women and men. Gender differences are minimal. Next, this chapter provides the DLS items in their entirety, instructions for administration and scoring, and the item response scale. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are available for readers.

The 17-item Male Body Image Self-Consciousness Scale (M-BISC; McDonagh et al., 2008) examines the extent to which men feel self-conscious about their bodies when engaging in physically intimate activities with another person. The M-BISC can be administered online or in-person to adolescent and adult individuals who identify as male. It is free to use in any setting. This chapter first discusses the development of the M-BISC and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the M-BISC was found to be unidimensional via exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Internal consistency reliability and convergent validity support the use of the M-BISC. Next, this chapter provides the M-BISC items in their entirety, instructions for administering it to participants, item response scale, and scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are available for readers.

The 6-item Body Image States Scale (BISS; Cash et al., 2002) assesses how respondents feel about their body and physical appearance “right now” as opposed to trait body image measures that assess how they feel about their body in general. The BISS uses a 9-point response scale to detect subtle variations in respondents’ evaluative and affective body image experiences in the moment and in response to specific contexts or experimental manipulations. The BISS can be administered online or in-person to adolescents or adults; it is free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the BISS and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the BISS has a unidimensional factor structure, and its internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, and construct validity are supported. Next, this chapter provides all items and their individualized response scales, instructions for administering the BISS to participants, and scoring procedures. Links to known translations are included. Logistics of use, such as how to obtain the BISS, permissions, copyright, and contact information are available for readers.

The 40-item Fat Microaggressions Scale (FMS; Lindloff et al., 2024) assesses the frequency that fat people experience weight-related microaggressions, where microaggressions are brief, recurrent, commonplace acts that demean and discriminate against members of stigmatized groups. The FMS can be administered online or in-person to adolescents and adults who self-identify as fat, overweight, or higher-weight, and is free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the FMS and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the FMS has a 4-factor structure within exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses: Direct Experiences (11 items), Indirect Experiences (12 items), Benevolent Weightism (11 items), and Clothing Exclusion (6 items). Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, criterion-related, incremental, and known-groups validity support the use of the FMS. Next, this chapter provides the FMS items in their entirety, instructions for administration and scoring, and the item response scale. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are available for readers.

Executive function is an umbrella term used to describe a collection of complex cognitive processes, which include decision-making, acting as a mechanism of integration rather than a function in itself. It is thought to consist of three main elements: inhibition, working memory and cognitive flexibility – each of which is important in the execution of decisions. Executive functions, like decision-making, are especially difficult to understand and conceptualise due to their abstract nature. Abstract thinking refers to an ability to form ideas that are not concrete, or that cannot be perceived in the present environment – a key contributor to complex decisions that involve integration of past experiences and planning ahead.

The 6-item Distinctive Appearance Investment Scale (Tiggemann & Golder, 2006) assesses need for uniqueness in the appearance domain, i.e., an individual’s desire to look different and stand out. The Distinctive Appearance Investment Scale can be administered online or in-person to adolescents and adults and is free to use in any setting. This chapter first discusses the development of the Distinctive Appearance Investment Scale within the tattooing and body modification literatures and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the Distinctive Appearance Investment Scale has been found to have a single-factor structure. Internal consistency reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity support its use. Next, this chapter provides the Distinctive Appearance Investment Scale items, instructions for administration, the item response scale, the scoring procedure, and known translations. Logistics of use, such as permissions and copyright, are provided for readers.

Social psychiatry focuses on the interpersonal and cultural contexts of mental disorder and mental wellbeing. Research in this area examines the relationship between psychiatric disorders and the social environment. This includes the consequences of positive or negative life events at the individual level, as well as broader themes – such as discrimination and inequality - at the societal level. This chapter aims to illustrate how research in social psychiatry has advanced our understanding of the role of social factors in the aetiology and management of mental disorders. We provide breakdowns of six high-impact research studies including summaries of background, methods, results, conclusions, strengths, and limitations. In addition, we provide some information about common pitfalls and methodological considerations that are specifically relevant to social psychiatry for novice researchers in this area, and our thoughts regarding future challenges and opportunities in this field.