The current catastrophic decline in African vultures is caused mainly by poisoning, and killing for consumption and belief-based use (traditional medicine). To find out more about the key threats to vultures in West Africa, we assessed the main anthropogenic causes of vulture mortality in Burkina Faso. We analysed incidents of mass vulture mortality, based on interviews conducted in 2016 with local butchers, veterinarians, foresters, and abattoir watchmen at 44 sites across the country. A total of 730 interviews revealed that poisoning was the main cause of mortality of vultures in Burkina Faso (20 of the 23 mass mortality incidents described by respondents were caused by poisoning). Poisoning was also the most lethal threat to vultures (779 out of 879 known vulture deaths were due to poisoning). According to the survey, intentional poisoning of vultures with poisoned baits (which comprised 15 out of 23 mass mortality incidents) produced the highest number of victims (577 out of 879 dead vultures). The number of vultures killed by poisoned baits was higher closer to the borders than elsewhere in Burkina Faso and we believe these recent intentional vulture poisoning events in Burkina Faso were intended to meet the growing demand for vulture body parts in West Africa. The survey showed that unintentional poisoning was the second main cause of vulture mass mortality (5 out of 23 mass mortality incidents comprising 202 of 879 dead vultures). Other important anthropogenic causes of vulture mortality included electrocution at electricity poles and motor vehicle collisions. Our results highlight the need for awareness campaigns, improved policy and legislation, and stronger commitment from governments in West Africa, to halt the trade in vultures and prevent their extirpation.

Persecution for belief-based uses is a major threat to raptors in West Africa. Critically Endangered Hooded Vultures Necrosyrtes monachus are traded openly in West African vodun (also known as voodoo or fetish) markets in Benin, despite national laws protecting this species. We interviewed 115 vendors selling Hooded Vultures and/or their body parts at nine different markets in southern Benin to understand the extent and drivers of this illegal trade. Over four months, we counted a total of 522 Hooded Vultures in market stalls, including whole dried vulture carcasses (73.4% of vulture products offered for sale), vulture heads (17.2%), and live birds (9.4%). Vultures offered for sale originated from at least 10 foreign countries, suggesting there are far-reaching impacts of illegal trade on Hooded Vultures. Vodun practitioners sacrifice and consume vultures in the belief these practices will protect them from witchcraft and achieve other supernatural aims, and the resulting high demand for vultures has driven the price of a Hooded Vulture to exceed the average monthly income in Benin. Despite serious legal, conservation, and animal welfare concerns, wildlife trade for belief-based use is thriving and growing in West Africa, and our findings highlight that legislation aimed at protecting vultures in Benin appears to be currently ineffective. From our discussions with traders, it appears that low education levels, weak law enforcement, and disregard for legislation contribute to this trade that threatens remaining vultures across West Africa. Public awareness campaigns to educate residents about conservation laws and improved law enforcement are urgently needed to mitigate on-going threats to this and other Critically Endangered species.

Many Indonesian, and in particular Javan, birds are suspected to have declined dramatically as a result of unsustainable trapping for the cagebird trade, but quantitative evidence of the scale of declines is lacking for the great majority of species. We conducted field surveys of the heavily traded Javan White-eye Zosterops flavus at 19 key sites in 2018–2019 matching the methods and personnel used in baseline surveys done around 10 years earlier. Overall numbers counted were 84% lower in the later survey, and while more white-eyes were recorded at three sites in 2018–2019, there was a significant decline in numbers across all sites. The three sites with highest numbers in 2006–2019 (502 birds counted) had 22 individuals counted in 2018–2019, but there was no overall trend for ‘declines’ to be greater at sites that held more birds originally. Declines in white-eyes were much steeper than those of several lesser-traded bird species at the sites, suggesting that trapping has been a more important driver of declines than habitat changes such as conversion of mangrove to shrimp ponds. Small numbers of white-eyes were recorded at several previously unvisited sites, but we suggest that the species, on Java at least, has shown declines in the region of 80% over the last 10 years. Although since 2018 Javan White-eye is legally protected, we urge that this protection is extended to all white-eye species, because of their similarity.

Poisonous birds are rare but on New Guinea, including Indonesia’s easternmost provinces, no less than nine poisonous species, eight pitohuis and one species of ifrita, are found. Pitohuis when handled can cause sneezing with numbness and burning of nasal tissue and nausea in humans. In the bird markets of western Indonesia novelty birds are traded at a premium and overexploitation of popular songbirds leads traders to find replacement species to meet demand. We conducted over 800 surveys in the bird markets of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, and Sulawesi between 1994 and 2023 and from 2015 onwards we assessed the online trade in pitohuis and Blue-capped Ifrit Ifrita kowaldi. We identified the species, recorded their prices and location, and the date when the birds were offered for sale. We analysed temporal trends, volumes, prices, and geographical origin of the sellers. Between 1994 and 2014 we did not encounter a single pitohui in the Indonesian bird markets. In the following years we recorded 113 pitohuis in 12 bird markets and we recorded 199 pitohuis for sale online; 248 were variable pitohuis and 54 were Hooded Pitohui Pitohui dichrous. No ifritas were recorded. Most pitohuis were recorded in eastern Java and Bali. Prices differed between eastern Java (mean of US$93) and western Java and Bali (US$185), possibly suggesting pitohuis arrive from West Papua in eastern Java and from there make their way to the outer markets. Pitohuis are marketed as “Papuan Straw-headed Bulbuls”; the Straw-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus zeylanicus is a very popular and expensive songbird from Southeast Asia, including western Indonesia, that has become rare both in the wild and in the markets due to overexploitation. Discussions about pitohuis on online forums rarely mention “poisonous” but when it is mentioned traders dismiss this as something not to worry about and they claim it to be dietary-dependent. Poisonous pitohuis are novelty, as well as master, birds in Indonesia, where they are marketed for their song ignoring any negative side-effects of them being poisonous. The trade in novelty species, when detected early, does allow for the authorities to intervene in a timely manner to ensure that this trade does not impede their conservation.

Amazon parrots stand out as one of the most illegally traded Psittacids in the neotropics. However, the lack of effective tools for determining the geographical origin of confiscated individuals has impeded the development of well-informed release programmes. In this study, we evaluated the efficacy of the cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene to identify phylogeographical groups and infer the origins of seized individuals across six Amazon parrot species. Through comprehensive genetic and phylogenetic analyses of 140 COI sequences from individuals with documented geographical origin, a genetic reference database was assembled. The most likely origin of 156 seized parrots was inferred by comparing their genotype to this database. Within the Yellow-headed Parrot Amazona ochrocephala species complex, our analyses revealed the presence of seven distinct phylogeographical groups, exposing a notable poaching impact in the Middle Magdalena’s river valley. For the Southern Mealy Amazon A. farinosa, three distinct genetic groups were identified, with seized individuals showing comparable proportions originating from both the Cis- and Trans-Andean regions. Noteworthy genetic differentiation was observed between individuals of Festive Amazon A. festiva from the Caquetá–Amazon Rivers and those from the Meta River, with two seized individuals assigned to the former. The Scaly-naped Amazon A. mercenaria exhibited genetic divergence between individuals from the central Andes and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. In contrast, the Orange-winged Amazon A. amazonica and Red-lored Amazon A. autumnalis did not display significant phylogeographical structure. However, analyses of seized individuals of A. amazonica suggested a potential underestimation of its genetic diversity and structure. This study illustrates the utility of mitochondrial molecular markers in determining the most probable area of origin for confiscated Amazon parrots, aiding in release programmes and enhancing the monitoring of natural populations.

The trade in Asian songbirds is contributing to declining populations of many species in the wild. The Chinese Hwamei Garrulax canorus is a popular songbird endemic to Asia that is traded both domestically and internationally. The songbird trade in the USA, particularly involving Asian songbirds, has not been well studied. We hypothesised that despite Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendix II regulations, Chinese Hwamei are traded illegally in the USA. We scrutinised the CITES Trade Database, US seizure and confiscation records, publicly available records, and websites to assess the imports and availability of Chinese Hwamei in the USA. Since the species was first listed in CITES Appendix II in 2000, there have been three reports of Chinese Hwamei imports into the USA, one of which included four live birds, compared with approximately 40 records of illegally imported birds. Online advertisements of Chinese Hwamei for sale show that both wild-caught and captive-bred birds are easily available. We believe this indicates that there is both legal and illegal trade of the species in the USA. Based on these findings we concluded that more research into the songbird trade, and specifically songbird trade in the USA, is warranted. We recommend additional assessments of CITES and non-CITES songbird species and encourage additional species protection when illegal trade is occurring. We also recommend that the relevant authorities in the USA better scrutinise the trade in non-native songbirds and take meaningful action against anyone found unlawfully importing and trading in illegally sourced songbirds. Finally, we recommend that the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species includes international trade as a threat to the Chinese Hwamei in order to raise concern and motivate action for this songbird.

Brazil’s rich biological and cultural diversity makes it an exceptional location for examining the commerce in live wild birds and its implications for conservation. This paper catalogues the live bird species being traded in Brazil, characterises the trade in these animals, and discusses the implications for avian conservation. In spite of being illegal, capturing and selling birds is still a very common practice in Brazil and involves many actors who make up part of a large commercial network that distributes wild animals to every corner of the country. Our survey revealed that at least 295 bird species are illegally sold as pets in Brazil, with estimates derived from this data pointing to a total of more than 400 species - about 23% of the number of extant bird species in the country. Of the bird species recorded, two were classified as “Critically Endangered”, nine as “Endangered”, six as “Vulnerable”, and 19 as “Near Threatened” according to the most recent IUCN Red List. Most of the species recorded in this study as being widely bought and sold (including on the international market) are not listed by CITES even though many of them are in fact threatened. In light of the widespread illegal trade in wild birds in Brazil and the conservation implications for the species involved, there is an urgent need for actions that can control these activities. Steps should be taken to address the illegal traffic directly and these must include monitoring, law enforcement, effective sentencing (including deterrent sentences), targeting end-users, captive breeding, and education at all levels, taking into account the cultural, economic, social, and ecological aspects of the human populations involved.

There is serious concern for the future of a wide range of birds in Java and elsewhere in Indonesia due to both loss of habitat and trapping for the cagebird trade (the so-called “Asian Songbird Crisis”). Despite this concern, few data on presence and abundance of key species exist. We provide such data on 184 bird species from over two years of biodiversity surveys from 37 sites on 12 mountains in West and Central Java. Many of these species are heavily traded, endemic, and globally threatened. Several of the threatened endemics, notably Javan Trogon and Javan Cochoa, were often recorded, in terms of both geographical spread and numerical abundance. Rufous-fronted Laughingthrush, Spotted Crocias, and Orange-spotted Bulbul, believed to be threatened by trapping for the songbird trade, appear to remain fairly widespread. By contrast, Brown-cheeked Bulbul, Chestnut-backed (Javan) Scimitar-babbler, Javan Oriole, and especially Javan Blue-flycatcher, recorded on just a single occasion, and Javan Green Magpie, which we failed to record with certainty, now appear to be extremely rare. Our encounter rates, while not pinned to specific mountains for security reasons, represent an important baseline against which future changes in abundance can be gauged.

During a period of 12 months in 2007 and 2008, a study of the parrot trade within Peru was carried out. In this study, 20 main wildlife markets were visited in eight cities in order to estimate the number of parrot species and individuals traded legally and illegally within a year. The study also gathered extra information from vendors and customers through informal interviews about the trade process. Additionally we contracted one person in two markets between February and May 2008 to monitor how many species and individuals entered the trade. During the study, four threatened species (the ‘Endangered’ Gray-cheeked Parakeet Brotogeris pyrrhoptera, the ‘Vulnerable’ Military Macaw Ara militaris, the ‘Vulnerable’ Yellow-faced Parrotlet Forpus xanthops and the ‘Near Threatened’ Red-masked Parakeet Aratinga erythrogenys) and one additional species listed in CITES Appendix 1 (Scarlet Macaw Ara macao) were found being traded. Thirty-four species were recorded in total, 33 of which are native to Peru (representing 63% of the 52 known Peruvian parrot species) and one of which (Monk Parakeet Myiopsitta monachus) is native to Bolivia and Argentina. Our results show that even for the seven species which can be legally traded in Peru, the number of individuals being traded can greatly exceed the numbers that can officially be traded legally. We directly counted 4,722 parrots for sale and using a measured detection rate of 3% we estimate a total market size in the cities surveyed of between 80,000 and 90,000 individuals. As our surveys sampled only 8 out of Peru’s 24 departmental capitals and there are also other large cities, these numbers are likely to represent only a part of the total trade in Peru. To the best of our knowledge this is one of the first detailed studies of the internal trade in a source country for the international parrot trade. Our results suggest that such internal trade is likely to be a significant conservation issue that has previously been largely overlooked.

The trade in laughingthrush species native to Indonesia is not carried out in accordance with Indonesian legislation and regulations. During 65 surveys carried out in bird markets in 1997–2008, more than 11,000 laughingthrushes representing 10 species were observed, including all five species native to Indonesia. Bird dealers claim that these species are becoming increasingly scarce in Indonesia due to over-harvesting for trade, especially the Sumatran endemic Black-and-white Laughingthrush G. bicolor and the Javan endemic Rufous-fronted Laughingthrush G. rufifrons. Indonesia has legislation in place to protect these species from over-exploitation, yet the illegal trade continues on a large scale, carried out openly in city bird markets. Enforcement of this legislation is critical in order to prevent these species from becoming perilously threatened.

Currently listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, the Straw-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus zeylanicus is being driven towards extinction throughout most of its range by unregulated illegal trade supplying the demand for songbirds. We conducted surveys of bird markets in North and West Kalimantan, and Central, West and East Java between July 2014 and June 2015, and observed a total of 71 Straw-headed Bulbuls in 11 markets in eight cities. Comparing our data with the literature, we found that as numbers in markets are decreasing, prices are increasing to over 20 times the prices recorded in 1987, indicating that numbers in the wild are diminishing. This is corroborated by widespread extirpations throughout their range and reports from traders that Straw-headed Bulbuls are increasingly difficult to locate, while demand from consumers remains high. Concerted efforts from a variety of stakeholders are urgently needed to prevent the extinction of this species in the wild. We recommend that the Straw-headed Bulbul be included in Indonesia’s list of protected species, considered for uplisting to Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List and listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). We also urge the Indonesian Government to effectively enforce existing laws, targeting the open bird markets to shut down the trade in this and other threatened species.

Demand for the ‘ivory’ casques of the Helmeted Hornbill Rhinoplax vigil appears to have risen very sharply, although the species is legally protected in every range state (Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand) and it is on Appendix I of CITES. Seizure records and other sources indicate that the majority of hornbills are being killed in Indonesia on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra and smuggled to China where the casques are carved for commercial sale. Between March 2012 and August 2014 a minimum 2,170 heads and/or casques were seized from the illegal trade in Indonesia and China in identifiable enforcement actions. Seizures were made from poachers, smugglers, processing facilities and retailers (both physical shops and online traders). Thirteen seizures occurred in Indonesia in which no fewer than 1,117 specimens were confiscated. In China, 18 seizures resulted in the confiscation of 1,053 specimens. Anecdotal evidence suggests the species is now rare in Indonesia but that demand, reflected in the high prices involved, will not soon abate. Efforts are therefore urgently needed to end this illegal trade, which is controlled by organised crime with interests in other wildlife products, to advertise the penalties for transgressors, and to create awareness of the law and the plight of the species among potential consumers.

South-East Asia’s bird trade is of global conservation concern as it has massively depleted wild populations of many species. Parrots (Order Psittaciformes) are especially vulnerable because they are the most heavily traded group of birds globally under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) appendices. Singapore’s involvement in the global pet bird trade as a transhipment hub is well documented, particularly for parrots. Yet, much less is known about the links between its domestic and international trade. We attempt to quantify this relationship by comparing bird trade data on the CITES database with past market surveys of pet shops, complemented with semi-structured interviews with 30 parrot owners in Singapore. We report a decline in total imports and exports of CITES-listed birds in Singapore from 2005 to 2016, consistent with global trends after the European Union trade ban on wild bird imports. However, parrots continue to make up the majority of total imports; and there was a yearly increase in the percentage of parrot imports out of total imports. In addition, we report a difference in imports and exports of 54,207 CITES I, II and III listed birds into Singapore i.e. birds imported but not re-exported. A substantial proportion of these birds were possibly channelled into the domestic pet trade or used as breeding stock. Interviews with parrot owners confirmed the growing demand and popularity of parrots and particularly of larger species. We conclude that the domestic demand for parrots may have been previously underestimated, and make recommendations to manage Singapore’s international and domestic pet bird trade such as implementing a licensing and records system to track the movement of birds.

Between October 1991 and February 1992 field surveys on the status of parrots in the North Moluccas were conducted on Obi, Bacan and Halmahera, with principal focus on three significantly traded species, White Cockatoo Cacatua alba, Chattering Lory Lorius garrulus and Violet-necked Lory Eos squamata. Variable circular plots and variable-distance line transects were used to estimate minimum and maximum population densities at each of 18 sites. C. alba and L. garrulus preferred forest, the former largely confined to lowlands to 600 m, the latter occurring more in hilly areas to at least 1,300 m. E. squamata frequented all habitat types, being commoner in disturbed habitats though rarer at higher altitudes. Minimum populations (the first two being global) were 50,000, 46,000 and 66,000 respectively, and minimum estimated captures in 1991 5,120, 9,600 and 2,850, indicating overexploitation of the first two species. To ensure sustainability, total annual catch quotas should be reduced to 1,710, 810 and 1,590 respectively and allow for fair division between islands. Training, enforcement, monitoring, research and habitat conservation are all needed.

The Critically Endangered Black-winged Myna Acridotheres melanopterus is being pushed towards the brink of extinction in Indonesia due to continued demand for it as a cage bird and the lack of enforcement of national laws set in place to protect it. The trade in this species is largely to supply domestic demand, although an unknown level of international demand also persists. We conducted five surveys of three of Indonesia’s largest open bird markets (Pramuka, Barito and Jatinegara), all of which are located in the capital Jakarta, between July 2010 and July 2014. No Black-winged Mynas were observed in Jatinegara, singles or pairs were observed during every survey in Barito, whereas up to 14 birds at a time were present at Pramuka. The average number of birds observed per survey is about a quarter of what it was in the 1990s when, on average, some 30 Black-winged Mynas were present at Pramuka and Barito markets. Current asking prices in Jakarta are high, with unbartered quotes averaging USD 220 per bird. Our surveys of the markets in Jakarta illustrate an ongoing and open trade. Dealers blatantly ignore national legislation and are fearless of enforcement actions. Commercial captive breeding is unlikely to remove pressure from remaining wild populations of Black-winged Mynas. Efforts to end the illegal trade in this species and to allow wild populations to recover are urgently needed. We also recommend the immediate inclusion of Black-winged Mynas in Appendix III of CITES to allow for international support to Indonesia in clamping down on international trade of the species.

An assessment of trade in parrots throughout Venezuela, 1988–1989, reveals alarmingly high internal and international levels. The national trade has main outlets in major cities, but is now compounded by the use of feathers for Indian artifacts sold to tourists. International trade involves illegal export chiefly from the Orinoco Delta, the majority of such birds (65,000–75,000) destined for Guyana. The large macaws suffer badly from both types of trade, but owing to its restricted range the endemic Amazona barbadensis is perhaps the most critically threatened species. Other species are assessed and, along with key sites, identified in priority order for remedial action, which should include more detailed field studies, rigorous trade data analysis, exchange of trade data with major neighbours, census and monitoring technique improvements, educational campaigns, and strict breeding facility control.

In order to determine whether Aratinga erythrogenys and Brotogeris pyrrhopterus can formally classified as globally threatened species, their distribution, population sizes and ecological requirements are reviewed, together with national and international trade data from the last decade. The study concludes that, on current data, it is not possible to classify the two species formally, but there are strong indications that, at least locally, the populations of the two species are in decline. The causal factors appear to be a combination of high trade levels and habitat loss. It is essential that trade moratoria are implemented, pending the outcome of further research into the species' population sizes, ecology and breeding success, and further work to determine the extent of trade. Interim recommendations are given and it is proposed that future exploitation of the species should continue only when it has been determined that it has a sustainable basis.

After habitat loss and degradation, the leading threats to biodiversity are over-exploitation and invasive alien species. For birds, newly synthesised data using the standard classification schemes for utilisation and threat types for the IUCN Red List allow novel analyses on the importance of these threats and permit the calculation of Red List Indices (RLIs) to show trends in the status of birds driven by these factors. At least 45.7% of extant bird species (4,561 species) are used by humans, principally for pets (37.0%) and for hunting for food (14.2%), but other uses include sport hunting, ornamentation and traditional medicine. Much of this use drives trade at an international scale, involving at least 3,337 species (33.9%, substantially higher than previous estimates), mostly for the pet trade. RLIs show that although successful control and management of use and trade have led to some species improving in status, this has been outweighed by the number of species deteriorating in status owing to unsustainable exploitation. Overall, the RLI showing trends in extinction risk driven by issues related to use shows a negative slope: human use of birds is currently unsustainable. Similarly, and of relevance to the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), the RLI for internationally traded bird species showing trends in extinction risk driven by issues related to international trade is also declining: international trade remains a threat to the world's birds. Invasive species impact at least one third of the world's threatened bird species (398 species, 32.6%), with mammals being the most important (impacting 81.1%), particularly through predation by carnivores and rodents. The RLI illustrating impacts of invasive species shows that they are driving a deterioration in the status of the world's birds. RLIs for the impacts of use and invasive species will be important indicators to help track progress towards the target of significantly reducing biodiversity loss by 2010.

Accurate assessments of population sizes and trends are fundamental for effective species conservation, particularly for social and long-lived species in which low reproductive rates, aging demographic structure and Allee effects could interact to drive rapid population declines. In the parrots (Order Psittaciformes) these life history characteristics have combined with habitat loss and capture for the pet trade to lead to widespread endangerment, with over 40% of species classified under some level of threat. Here we report the results of a population survey of one such species, the Yellow-naped Amazon, Amazona auropalliata, that is classified as ‘Endangered’ on the IUCN Red List. We conducted a comprehensive survey in June and July of 2016 of 44 night roosts of the populations in contiguous Pacific lowlands of northern Costa Rica and southern Nicaragua and compared numbers in Costa Rica to those found in a similar survey conducted in June 2005. In 2016 we counted 990 birds across 25 sites surveyed in Costa Rica and 692 birds across 19 sites surveyed in Nicaragua for a total population estimate of only 1,682 birds. Comparisons of 13 sites surveyed in both 2005 and 2016 in Costa Rica showed a strong and statistically significant decline in population numbers over the 11-year period. Assessment of group sizes approaching or leaving roosts indicated that less than 25% of groups consisted of three or more birds; there was a significantly higher proportion of these putative family groups observed in Nicaragua than Costa Rica. Taken together, these results are cause for substantial concern for the health of this species in a region that has previously been considered its stronghold, and suggest that stronger conservation action should be undertaken to protect remaining populations from capture for the pet trade and loss of key habitat.

Since antiquity, the keeping of finches as pets has been common throughout the Mediterranean countries and it remains a widespread hobby to the present day. Since most finches are sourced from the wild this hobby can have implications for their conservation, especially for already imperilled species. We conducted a survey of 257 households in the city of Guelma, in the north-east of Algeria, and of 70 participants to a European Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis show contest in Algiers, to understand the owners’ motives for keeping cage birds and find solutions to mitigate any negative effects on the trade. Keeping and showing finches in Algeria is a male-dominated hobby, especially for the 30–40 year age bracket. Our surveys indicate that almost 60% of households had a cage bird, with the European Goldfinch being the most popular species. With a mean of 0.75 goldfinches per household we estimate that in Guelma alone some 17,000 are kept in captivity. Between 70% and 90% of the owners indicated that their birds were indeed wild-sourced, and over 85% of them were aware of the protected status of the European Goldfinch in Algeria. Our findings underline the need for strict enforcement of existing laws and better targeted awareness campaigns to influence the behaviour of owners in order to reduce the demand for wild specimens.