Area-based conservation is a widely used approach for maintaining biodiversity, and there are ongoing discussions over what is an appropriate global conservation area coverage target. To inform such debates, it is necessary to know the extent and ecological representativeness of the current conservation area network, but this is hampered by gaps in existing global datasets. In particular, although data on privately and community-governed protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures are often available at the national level, it can take many years to incorporate these into official datasets. This suggests a complementary approach is needed based on selecting a sample of countries and using their national-scale datasets to produce more accurate metrics. However, every country added to the sample increases the costs of data collection, collation and analysis. To address this, here we present a data collection framework underpinned by a spatial prioritization algorithm, which identifies a minimum set of countries that are also representative of 10 factors that influence conservation area establishment and biodiversity patterns. We then illustrate this approach by identifying a representative set of sampling units that cover 10% of the terrestrial realm, which included areas in only 25 countries. In contrast, selecting 10% of the terrestrial realm at random included areas across a mean of 162 countries. These sampling units could be the focus of future data collation on different types of conservation area. Analysing these data could produce more rapid and accurate estimates of global conservation area coverage and ecological representativeness, complementing existing international reporting systems.

Mammal populations are declining in biodiverse tropical regions. Global analyses have identified Indonesia as a hotspot of vertebrate decline, although relatively few data are available to substantiate these claims. We reviewed research articles published during 2000–2020 on 104 medium-sized to large terrestrial mammal species found in Indonesia to help inform conservation management and future research. We identified 308 peer-reviewed studies published in English or Bahasa Indonesia, with an increase in publication rate (articles published per year) over time. Studies of species distributions dominated the literature, followed by publications on abundance, species diversity and combinations of these topics. Most publications concerned single-species studies conducted at a single location and a single point in time. We identify four key issues that should be addressed by future research and conservation efforts: (1) disproportionate focus on a small number of species; (2) geographical bias towards west Indonesia (Sumatra, Kalimantan and Java–Bali), with few published studies from central (Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara and Maluku) and east (Papua) Indonesia; (3) limitations to survey design, sampling effort and data analysis; and (4) lack of long-term wildlife population studies. We also note challenges local researchers face in publishing their studies in international journals because of language barriers and costs. Greater use of existing biodiversity data and continued capacity building for local researchers, particularly those in central and east Indonesia, are critical to effectively guide future wildlife monitoring and improve the conservation status of Indonesian mammals.

The increased severity and frequency of bushfires accompanying human-induced global warming have dire implications for biodiversity conservation. Here we investigate the response of a cryptic, cool-climate elapid, the mustard-bellied snake Drysdalia rhodogaster, to the extensive Black Summer fires of 2019/2020 in south-eastern Australia. The species is categorized as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List (last assessed in 2017), but because a large part of its range was burnt during the Black Summer and little was known about its ecology, D. rhodogaster was identified as a priority species for post-fire impact assessment. We evaluated three lines of evidence to assess the impact of the Black Summer fires on D. rhodogaster. Habitat suitability modelling indicated that c. 46% of the predicted range of the species was affected by bushfire. Field surveys conducted 9–36 months post-fire and collation of records from public databases submitted 0–24 months post-fire indicated that D. rhodogaster persisted in burnt landscapes. Fire severity and proportion of the landscape that was burnt within a 1,000-m radius of survey sites were poor predictors of site occupancy by D. rhodogaster. Although conclusions regarding the effects of fire on D. rhodogaster are limited because of the lack of baseline data, it is evident that the species has persisted across the landscape in the wake of extensive bushfires. Our work highlights the need for baseline knowledge on cryptic species even when they are categorized as Least Concern, as otherwise assessments of the impacts of catastrophic events will be constrained.

On the IUCN Red List the saltwater crocodile Crocodylus porosus is categorized globally as Least Concern, with national populations ranging from fully recovered to extinct. The saltwater crocodile population of the Southeast Asian island nation of Timor-Leste was severely depleted by colonial hunting but has recovered since independence in 2002. During 2007–2014 there was a 23-fold increase in reported crocodile attacks (104 documented attacks), concomitant with a 2% annual increase in the human population. Public tolerance to attacks and the reluctance to harm crocodiles are entwined with reverence of crocodiles as sacred beings by most but not all Timorese people. In 2022, 7–8 years after our previous assessment, we visited five sites on the south coast of Timor-Leste in Lautém, Viqueque, Manufahí and Cova Lima municipalities. High rates of crocodile attacks continue. We obtained 35 records of attacks for 2015–2022 (34% fatal). In the municipalities where crocodile attacks occurred (Lautém, Viqueque, Cova Lima), the sacred status of crocodiles prevented inhabitants from harming them in retribution. In Manufahí, where no attacks were reported, such traditional values never existed and crocodiles were hunted for subsistence and to improve safety. The design of a context-specific crocodile management programme that respects the reverence attributed to crocodiles by most people but reduces the risk of people being attacked by crocodiles is a conservation management challenge for the government of Timor-Leste. The developing tourism industry, which relies on coastal beaches and reefs, is jeopardized by the risk of crocodile attacks.

Surveys targeting flagship species frequently record the presence of other species, providing valuable bycatch data to fill knowledge gaps on the ecology of overlooked species. Using bycatch records from camera-trap surveys for the tiger Panthera tigris, we model occupancy of the sun bear Helarctos malayanus, predict its temporal change in occupancy during 2015–2019 and determine its activity patterns in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Sumatra, Indonesia. We performed single-season occupancy modelling that considered unequal detection probability from sun bear detection/non-detection records. We found that the sun bear occupancy in the Intensive Protection Zone (i.e. the priority protection area) of the National Park was slightly higher than in the north of the National Park. In the Intensive Protection Zone, sun bear occupancy was estimated to be 0.67 in 2015 and increased to 0.83 in 2019, but this increase was not substantial. The sun bear exhibited a cathemeral activity pattern. Most activity occurred during the day (46.2%), followed by night (21.2%), dusk (20.9%) and dawn (11.7%). We encourage collaboration amongst institutions conducting camera-trap studies in Sumatra to examine the ecology of other threatened yet overlooked species, to assess the broader biodiversity benefits of flagship species conservation and to strengthen science-based conservation efforts.

Crop foraging by African savannah elephants Loxodonta africana negatively affects farmer livelihoods and support for conservation, yet affordable, sustainable and practical solutions remain elusive. To inform conservation priorities, our goal was to assess the hitherto little explored relationships between farmers’ views on agricultural damage and the socio-economic factors limiting their use of elephant deterrents. We tested our hypotheses associated with the demographic categories of age, education level, years spent farming, gender, exposure to information on deterrent methods, farm size, village and relevant combinations of these factors by surveying 206 respondents across six villages in rural Kenya and analysing the resulting data using an information theoretic approach. Respondents were almost four times more likely to use deterrents if exposed to the relevant information, and almost five times more likely to do so if they had secondary education as opposed to none. Farmers with a higher level of education were five times more likely to have received information on deterrents compared to those with no formal education. Participants who had not received information on deterrents were almost three times more likely to believe that they could implement deterrent methods. Respondents who stated that they could not implement deterrents overwhelmingly cited a lack of financial resources as the reason. Overall, we found that crucial information on reducing elephant crop foraging is not reaching the relevant stakeholders, and socio-economic factors such as education and exposure to information appear to limit uptake of protective measures. These insights are important for developing mitigation strategies and supporting the livelihoods of people affected by negative human–elephant interactions, and thus for effective elephant conservation. Our findings also have broader applications for practitioners seeking to understand barriers stakeholders face in their efforts to mitigate negative interactions with wildlife.

Understanding the distribution and habitat requirements of species is crucial for designing conservation actions, yet this information is not available for many plant species. We report the first confirmed wild populations of Porroglossum parsonsii, which, because of its horticultural value, is commercialized in national and international markets, from where it was first described to science. Our large-scale survey of 341 10 × 30 m plots spanning Andean forests, paramo habitats and pasturelands in Colombia suggests that P. parsonsii has a restricted geographical distribution in Andean forests with high forest cover (71.4–86.2%), where it occurs in low numbers (5–17 individuals per plot). Because of its market value (USD 18–20 per plant) there is a risk the species could be collected illegally, and therefore the habitat of the species in the Santuario de Fauna y Flora de Iguaque requires appropriate conservation.

The status of the forest elephant Loxodonta cyclotis in Guinea-Bissau has been in doubt since the last assessment in 2006. In 2020–2022 we carried out field surveys to update the species' status. We found elephant signs within an area of c. 1,000 km2. Microsatellite genotyping of faeces identified four males. Females could not be individually identified but their presence was confirmed by molecular sex determination. Camera trapping (2,075 camera-trap days) recorded 824 photos in 24 independent sequences, involving three males and two presumed females. The continued presence of elephants in Guinea-Bissau raises hope for the species in the region, but urgent efforts are needed to refine population range and size estimates, increase protected area coverage, and reduce ongoing and impending habitat loss. An emergency conservation action plan is a priority.

Protected areas are important for wildlife conservation but they are also used by many local communities for livelihood activities. This often leads to conflicts and erodes the tolerance of local people for wildlife, particularly towards carnivores that prey on livestock. To enhance conservation success and improve the social carrying capacity of carnivores, it is essential to understand the factors influencing such conflicts and the attitudes of people interacting with carnivores. We used structured questionnaire surveys to assess the extent of livestock mortality and community responses to common leopards Panthera pardus in Kishtwar National Park, a relatively understudied protected area in the Greater Himalayan region of India. The mountainous Park and its surroundings have historically served as a haven for the local agro-pastoralists and transhumant pastoralists, resulting in complex human–wildlife interactions across the larger landscape. Our results showed that leopards were responsible for high livestock depredation (71 incidents in 2 years), and households with larger livestock holdings experienced a higher predation rate compared to those with smaller livestock holdings. An ordinal logistic regression model revealed that respondents’ age and period of activity in the Park significantly influenced their opinions regarding leopards. Large losses suffered by otherwise low-income households resulted in more negative attitudes towards these predators. Our study indicates that financial compensation for livestock losses is a key factor in improving human–leopard coexistence. A comprehensive, cross-sector collaborative approach would help to improve conflict resolution and promote favourable attitudes towards these predators.

The Arabian leopard Panthera pardus nimr is categorized as Critically Endangered, with < 200 individuals estimated to remain in the wild. Historically the species ranged over an extensive area of western Saudi Arabia but, with no confirmed sightings since 2014, investigating potential continued presence and distribution is of critical conservation importance. We present the results of a comprehensive survey designed to detect any remaining Arabian leopard populations in Saudi Arabia. We conducted 14 surveys, deploying 586 camera-trap stations at 13 sites, totalling 82,075 trap-nights. Questionnaire surveys were conducted with 843 members of local communities across the Arabian leopard's historical range to assess the presence of leopards, other predators and prey species. Predator scats were collected ad hoc by field teams and we used mitochondrial DNA analysis to identify the originating species. We obtained 62,948 independent photographs of animals and people, but none were of Arabian leopards. Other carnivores appeared widespread and domestic animals were numerous, but wild prey were comparatively scarce. Three questionnaire respondents reported sightings of leopards within the previous year, but targeted camera-trap surveys in these areas did not yield evidence of leopards. Of the 143 scats sent for analysis, no DNA was conclusively identified as that of the leopard. From this extensive study, we conclude there are probably no surviving, sustainable populations of Arabian leopards in Saudi Arabia. Individual leopards might be present but were not confirmed. Any future Arabian leopard conservation in Saudi Arabia will probably require reintroduction of captive-bred leopards.

The plant species Sesbania tomentosa (‘ōhai; Fabaceae) is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, federally listed as endangered in the USA and has been proposed for categorization as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. In 2021, c. 12,000 seeds from 12 seed lots collected during 1990–1992 from across the Hawaiian Islands were discovered in ambient herbarium conditions (55% relative humidity (RH) at 20 °C). International gene bank standards suggest drying seeds in equilibrium with 15% RH and stored at −18 °C. To investigate seed viability, we mechanically scarified then sowed 15 seeds from each accession at daily alternating regimes of 12 h light and 12 h dark at temperatures of 25/15 °C, respectively. Germination was observed after 7 days and ended after 34 days. Mean final germination was 88.9 ± SD 0.1% (range 73–100%). Each seed lot was accessioned into the National Tropical Botanical Garden's Seed Bank and Laboratory. In seeds with a water-impermeable seed coat (i.e. physical dormancy), such as S. tomentosa, seeds can desorb but not absorb water. Therefore, if the seeds were initially dried, although exposed to high RH for up to 32 years, seed equilibrium RH may have remained low, which may in part explain the observed high germinability. This study holds significance for managers who are working to conserve this endangered Hawaiian species and suggests that even suboptimal conditions may still yield highly viable seeds several decades into the future.

To execute environmental education effectively, the success and impacts of educational activities must be assessed. In areas of high biodiversity there is generally a lack of evaluation of the impact of environmental education. In this study we investigate the effect of a one-time classroom activity on student knowledge of local environmental issues, environmental attitudes and aspirations. The project was conducted on the island of Maio, Cabo Verde, a small, highly biodiverse island, as part of a classroom visit programme with the local environmental organization, Maio Biodiversity Foundation. We visited every fourth-grade class (i.e. students with an age range of 9–10 years) on the island (a total of 142 students) and delivered a half-day classroom activity. The results show that this activity did not influence environmental attitudes; however, it did significantly improve student knowledge and awareness of local environmental issues. This study shows that environmental education should not be assumed to improve attitudes and knowledge but requires individual evaluation for each type of activity. For environmental education to reach its full potential, activities should be planned in response to evaluation results.

The fern of Achala Asplenium achalense Hieron. (Aspleniaceae), endemic to north-west and central Argentina, was formerly considered a lost species. We describe its rediscovery in August 2022 in the Yungas biogeographical province, compile a map of all historical and current records of the species, and propose an IUCN Red List status. We estimated the fern of Achala's range using the area of occupancy of the rediscovered population, calculated as 4 km2 because it is located in a single 2 × 2 km grid square. The extent of occurrence cannot be calculated because only a single living population is known. These data suggest a provisional categorization of the fern of Achala as Critically Endangered based on criteria B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv,v). The species should be considered Regionally Extinct in its locus classicus in Comechingones biogeographical province. We recommend securing the conservation of the single known population (which does not lie within a conservation unit), further surveys for the species in the five protected areas where it was recorded historically, and restoration of the species in the wild. To support the latter, we are cultivating spores and gametophytes of the fern of Achala, in collaboration with colleagues from the National University of La Plata.

The Mediterranean flora is characterized by a high number of narrow endemic plant species that are often restricted to a few small populations. One of these species, Valeriana amazonum, a perennial plant occurring only in the Supramontes region of central eastern Sardinia, is categorized as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List because of its restricted range, small population size and an inferred decline caused by several threats. During 2007–2022, we monitored all mature individuals of this plant annually and surveyed ecologically suitable sites for the species. We identified two previously unknown populations and also learnt of two successful translocations carried out independently by an unknown local citizen. As our monitoring data indicate there has been no decline in the number of mature individuals over the period of monitoring, the species’ conservation status requires reassessment. We recommend that V. amazonum should be recategorized as Near Threatened as it seems to be poorly known rather than highly threatened. This could also be the case with other narrow Mediterranean endemics, especially those that grow in inaccessible habitats for which long-term studies are needed to assess conservation status.

The snow leopard Panthera uncia is categorized as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. It is the least well-known of the large felids because of its shy and elusive nature and the inaccessible terrain it inhabits across the mountains of Central and South Asia. We report the first photographic record of the snow leopard in Kishtwar High Altitude National Park, India. During our camera-trapping surveys, conducted using a grid-based design, we obtained eight photographs of snow leopards, the first at 3,280 m altitude on 19 September 2022 and subsequent photographs over 3,004–3,878 m altitude. We identified at least four different individuals, establishing the species’ occurrence in Kiyar, Nanth and Renai catchments, with a capture rate of 0.123 ± SE 0.072 captures/100 trap-nights. We also recorded the presence of snow leopard prey species, including the Siberian ibex Capra sibirica, Himalayan musk deer Moschus leucogaster, long-tailed marmot Marmota caudata and pika Ochotona sp., identifying the area as potential snow leopard habitat. Given the location of Kishtwar High Altitude National Park, this record is significant for the overall snow leopard conservation landscape in India. We recommend a comprehensive study across the Kishtwar landscape to assess the occupancy, abundance, demography and movement patterns of the snow leopard and its prey. In addition, interactions between the snow leopard and pastoral communities should be assessed to understand the challenges facing the conservation and management of this important high-altitude region.

Jalthal Forest (62.6 km2) is a remnant forest patch of a once continuous, lush and dense area of sal Shorea robusta and mixed deciduous vegetation in eastern lowland Nepal that is now surrounded by a dense human population. The forest is one of the last remnants of suitable habitat for the Critically Endangered yellow-headed tortoise Indotestudo elongata. This study explored the distribution of and conservation threats facing the yellow-headed tortoise in Jalthal Forest through field surveys in 20 community forests and structured interviews with 80 members of 22 community forest user groups and local people during September–November 2021. We surveyed 11.3 km2 of the forest and observed only four individuals of I. elongata, indicating a population density of 0.35/km2. Local people perceived that the species is decreasing mainly because of hunting (42%) and habitat deterioration from incursion of invasive species (30%). Based on the interviews with local people involved in hunting, an annual mean of 6.8 tortoises were killed during 2017–2021. The purposes of hunting were consumption (70%) and ethnomedicinal uses (30%) by the Meche and Sathar communities. Awareness campaigns and networks of communication amongst all stakeholders are required to conserve this species in Jalthal Forest.

The persistence of seed-dispersing animals in degraded habitats could be critical for ensuring the long-term conservation value and restoration of forests. This is particularly important in Southeast Asia, where > 70% of the remaining forest areas are within 1 km of a forest edge, and many are degraded (e.g. logged). We synthesized information on the habitat associations of the binturong Arctictis binturong, a large, semi-arboreal, frugivorous civet and one of the most important seed dispersers in the region, especially for figs (Ficus spp). We adopted a multiscale approach by employing ensemble species distribution modelling from presence-only records, assessing landscape-scale variation in detection rates in published camera-trap studies and using hierarchical occupancy modelling to assess local (i.e. within-landscape) patterns observed from 20 new camera-trap surveys. Contrary to prior reports that binturongs are strongly associated with intact forests, the species was equally present in degraded forests and near forest edges where sufficient forest cover was maintained (> 40% forest cover within a 20-km radius). The species also tolerates moderate incursions of oil palm plantations (< 20% of the area within a 20-km radius covered by oil palm plantations). The relative resilience of binturongs to habitat degradation could be in part because of behavioural adaptations towards increased nocturnal activity. These results support the notion that key seed dispersers can persist and maintain their ecological function in degraded forests.

Transfrontier conservation landscapes, such as the Kavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA TCA) in southern Africa, play a crucial role in preserving global biodiversity and promoting the sustainable development of local communities. However, resources to facilitate management could become scarce across large areas, leading to difficulties in obtaining baseline ecological information. Consequently, in the absence of sustainable management vast landscapes may experience loss of wildlife species, which could destabilize ecosystems. This effect is particularly significant if the loss involves top predators. Hence, understanding carnivore distributions is critical to informing management. We conducted a mammal survey in the Ondjou Conservancy in Namibia, an 8,729 km2 understudied area in the south-west of the KAZA TCA. We analysed camera-trapping data from a 2,304 km2 grid and identified high carnivore richness (18 species) despite widespread human activity and prey depletion. Using a multi-species occupancy framework we found that carnivore occurrence increased with increasing distance from the main village and with closer proximity to the Nyae Nyae Conservancy neighbouring the KAZA TCA, which has large and diverse carnivore populations. Carnivore occurrence was higher when local prey richness was high. The Ondjou Conservancy could function as an important buffer for the larger conservation network, yet rural communities in this area require support for fostering human–wildlife coexistence. Additionally, restoring the natural prey base will be critical to ensuring the long-term viability of carnivore populations in this and other human-impacted landscapes. With many remote areas of transfrontier conservation landscapes being understudied, our findings illustrate the conservation potential of such areas within large-scale conservation networks.

The Bali myna Leucopsar rothschildi has long suffered heavy trapping, leading to its near extinction in the wild and categorization as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List. Decades of conservation breeding, release of birds and post-release management at Bali Barat National Park have, until recently, failed to secure a viable wild population. However, over the past decade, population increases, expansion into new areas of the National Park and beyond, and successful breeding in both artificial and natural nest sites have occurred. These recent successes are associated with a change in approach by the National Park authority from concentrating efforts on the last refugium of the species (an area protected from trapping but with potentially suboptimal habitat) and towards the human-dominated landscapes around the main road through the National Park. Bali mynas tended to favour areas with extensive shorter grass cover and open canopies and to shun denser woodland. Anthropogenic landscapes such as farmland and plantations presumably mimic the original savannah habitat of the species, but nestbox provision has probably been crucial in these areas in the absence of natural cavities. A potential further factor in the increases in myna numbers and range has been a scheme involving local people in commercial breeding of the species, thereby reducing its market price, and working with communities to reduce trapping pressure. We encourage continuing operation of this management strategy inside the National Park and its further extension into adjacent tourist areas, which appear to have myna-friendly socio-ecological conditions.

Two globally threatened tree species, the Critically Endangered Cola porphyrantha (Malvaceae) and the Endangered Gigasiphon macrosiphon (Fabaceae) are narrowly distributed in Kenya and Tanzania. In Tanzania, both species were first located in an isolated, unprotected forest fragment in the East Usambara Mountains in the early 2000s. As no assessment of these subpopulations had been made since then, we surveyed the forest fragment as well as nearby unprotected forest fragments. In contrast to the early 2000s when only five and two mature trees of C. porphyrantha and G. macrosiphon, respectively, were located, we found 18 and five mature trees of these species. We did not find either species in intensive surveys of seven neighbouring unprotected forest fragments but we located a single G. macrosiphon beside a river close to one of the unprotected fragments. Gigasiphon macrosiphon was also previously known from two sites in Amani Nature Reserve in the East Usambara Mountains, but recent surveys, including our own, failed to relocate these subpopulations. Because of heavy anthropogenic disturbance in the one site where the two species still occur and their general absence from adjacent forest, we are working with the local community to protect the isolated fragment. Additionally, in situ planting of locally grown seedlings of both species is being supported by Amani Nature Reserve.