High levels of psychiatric morbidity in prisoners have been documented in many countries, but it is not known whether rates of mental illness have been increasing over time or whether the prevalence differs between low–middle-income countries compared with high-income ones.

To systematically review prevalence studies for psychotic illness and major depression in prisoners, provide summary estimates and investigate sources of heterogeneity between studies using meta-regression.

Studies from 1966 to 2010 were identified using ten bibliographic indexes and reference lists. Inclusion criteria were unselected prison samples and that clinical examination or semi-structured instruments were used to make DSM or ICD diagnoses of the relevant disorders.

We identified 109 samples including 33 588 prisoners in 24 countries. Data were meta-analysed using random-effects models, and we found a pooled prevalence of psychosis of 3.6% (95% CI 3.1–4.2) in male prisoners and 3.9% (95% CI 2.7–5.0) in female prisoners. There were high levels of heterogeneity, some of which was explained by studies in low–middle-income countries reporting higher prevalences of psychosis (5.5%, 95% CI 4.2–6.8; P=0.035 on meta-regression). The pooled prevalence of major depression was 10.2% (95% CI 8.8–11.7) in male prisoners and 14.1% (95% CI 10.2–18.1) in female prisoners. The prevalence of these disorders did not appear to be increasing over time, apart from depression in the USA (P=0.008).

High levels of psychiatric morbidity are consistently reported in prisoners from many countries over four decades. Further research is needed to confirm whether higher rates of mental illness are found in low- and middle-income nations, and examine trends over time within nations with large prison populations.

The association between autoimmune diseases and schizophrenia has rarely been systematically investigated.

To investigate the association between schizophrenia and a variety of autoimmune diseases and to explore possible gender variation in any such association.

Taiwan's National Health Insurance Research Database was used to identify 10 811 hospital in-patients with schizophrenia and 108 110 age-matched controls. Univariate and multiple logistic regression analyses were performed, separately, to evaluate the association between autoimmune diseases and schizophrenia. We applied the false discovery rate to correct for multiple testing.

When compared with the control group, the in-patients with schizophrenia had an increased risk of Graves' disease (odds ratio (OR) = 1.32, 95% CI 1.04–1.67), psoriasis (OR = 1.48, 95% CI 1.07–2.04), pernicious anaemia (OR = 1.71, 95% CI 1.04–2.80), celiac disease (OR = 2.43, 95% CI 1.12–5.27) and hypersensitivity vasculitis (OR = 5.00, 95% CI 1.64–15.26), whereas a reverse association with rheumatoid arthritis (OR = 0.52, 95% CI 0.35–0.76) was also observed. Gender-specific variation was found for Sjögren syndrome, hereditary haemolytic anaemia, myasthenia gravis, polymyalgia rheumatica and dermatomyositis.

Schizophrenia was associated with a greater variety of autoimmune diseases than was anticipated. Further investigation is needed to gain a better understanding of the aetiology of schizophrenia and autoimmune diseases.

Symptoms of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) have been described in neuropsychiatric syndromes associated with streptococcal infections. It is proposed that antibodies raised against streptococcal proteins cross-react with neuronal proteins (antigens) in the brain, particularly in the basal ganglia, which is a brain region implicated in OCD pathogenesis.

To test the hypothesis that post-streptococcal autoimmunity, directed against neuronal antigens, may contribute to the pathogenesis of OCD in adults.

Ninety-six participants with OCD were tested for the presence of anti-streptolysin-O titres (ASOT) and the presence of anti-basal ganglia antibodies (ABGA) in a cross-sectional study. The ABGA were tested for with western blots using three recombinant antigens; aldolase C, enolase and pyruvate kinase. The findings were compared with those in a control group of individuals with depression (n = 33) and schizophrenia (n = 17).

Positivity for ABGA was observed in 19/96 (19.8%) participants with OCD compared with 2/50 (4%) of controls (Fisher's exact testP = 0.012). The majority of positive OCD sera (13/19) had antibodies against the enolase antigen. No clinical variables were associated with ABGA positivity. Positivity for ASOT was not associated with ABGA positivity nor found at an increased incidence in participants with OCD compared with controls.

These findings support the hypothesis that central nervous system autoimmunity may have an aetiological role in some adults with OCD. Further study is required to examine whether the antibodies concerned are pathogenic and whether exposure to streptococcal infection in vulnerable individuals is a risk factor for the development of OCD.

Second-generation antipsychotics have been thought to cause fewer extrapyramidal side-effects (EPS) than first-generation antipsychotics, but recent pragmatic trials have indicated equivalence.

To determine whether second-generation antipsychotics had better outcomes in terms of EPS than first-generation drugs.

We conducted an intention-to-treat, secondary analysis of data from an earlier randomised controlled trial (n = 227). A clinically significant difference was defined as double or half the symptoms in groups prescribed first- v. second-generation antipsychotics, represented by odds ratios greater than 2.0 (indicating advantage for first-generation drugs) or less than 0.5 (indicating advantage for the newer drugs). We also examined EPS in terms of symptoms emergent at 12 weeks and 52 weeks, and symptoms that had resolved at these time points.

At baseline those randomised to the first-generation antipsychotic group(n = 118) had similar EPS to the second-generation group (n = 109). Indications of resolved Parkinsonism (OR = 0.5) and akathisia (OR = 0.4) and increased tardive dyskinesia (OR = 2.2) in the second-generation drug group at 12 weeks were not statistically significant and the effects were not present by 52 weeks. Patients in the second-generation group were dramatically (30-fold) less likely to be prescribed adjunctive anticholinergic medication, despite equivalence in terms of EPS.

The expected improvement in EPS profiles for participants randomised to second-generation drugs was not found; the prognosis over 1 year of those in the first-generation arm was no worse in these terms. The place of careful prescription of first-generation drugs in contemporary practice remains to be defined, potentially improving clinical effectiveness and avoiding life-shortening metabolic disturbances in some patients currently treated with the narrow range of second-generation antipsychotics used in routine practice. This has educational implications because a generation of psychiatrists now has little or no experience with first-generation antipsychotic prescription.

Increasing rates of prescriptions for antidepressants, antipsychotics and stimulants have been reported from various countries.

To examine trends in prescriptions and the costs of all classes of psychiatric medication in England.

Data from the Prescription Cost Analysis 1998–2010 was examined, using linear regression analysis to examine trends.

Prescriptions of drugs used for mental disorders increased by 6.8% (95% CI 6.3–7.4) per year on average, in line with other drugs, but made up an increasing proportion of all prescription drug costs (P = 0.001). There were rising trends in prescriptions of all classes of psychiatric drugs, except anxiolytics and hypnotics (which did not change). Antidepressant prescriptions increased by 10% (95% CI 9.0–11) per year on average, and antipsychotics by 5.1% (95% CI 4.3–5.9). Antipsychotics overtook antidepressants as the most costly class of psychiatric medication, with costs rising 22% (95% CI 17–27) per year.

Rising prescriptions may be partly explained by longer-term treatment and increasing population. Nevertheless, it appears that psychiatric drugs make an increasing contribution to total prescription drug costs, with antipsychotics becoming the most costly. Low-dose prescribing of some antipsychotics is consistent with other evidence that their use may not be restricted to those with severe mental illness.

Older adults have elevated suicide rates. Self-harm is the most important risk factor for suicide. There are few population-based studies of self-harm in older adults.

To calculate self-harm rates, risk factors for repetition and rates of suicide following self-harm in adults aged 60 years and over.

We studied a prospective, population-based self-harm cohort presenting to six general hospitals in three cities in England during 2000 to 2007.

In total 1177 older adults presented with self-harm and 12.8% repeated self-harm within 12 months. Independent risk factors for repetition were previous self-harm, previous psychiatric treatment and age 60–74 years. Following self-harm, 1.5% died by suicide within 12 months. The risk of suicide was 67 times that of older adults in the general population. Men aged 75 years and above had the highest suicide rates.

Older adults presenting to hospital with self-harm are a high-risk group for subsequent suicide, particularly older men.

Most previous studies of long-term mortality risk following self-harm have been conducted in Western countries with few studies from Asia.

To investigate suicide and non-suicide mortality after non-fatal self-harm in Taipei City, Taiwan.

Prospective cohort study (median follow-up 3.3 years) of 7601 individuals presenting to hospital with self-harm (January 2004 to December 2006). Standardised mortality ratios (SMRs) for suicide and non-suicide mortality were calculated.

Suicide risk in the year following self-harm was over 100 times higher than in the general population (SMR = 119.6, 95% CI 99.6–142.5). Males and middle-aged and older adults had the highest subsequent risk of suicide. Compared with people who took an overdose, individuals who used hanging or charcoal burning in their index episode had the highest risk of suicide. For non-suicide mortality the SMRs were 6.7 (95% CI 5.7–7.8) in the first year and 4.4 (95% CI 3.9–4.9) during the whole follow-up period.

Patterns of increased all-cause and suicide mortality following an episode of self-harm are similar in Taipei City to those seen in Western countries. Designing better aftercare following non-fatal self-harm, particularly for those with underlying physical disorders or who have used lethal self-harm methods, should be a priority for suicide prevention programmes in Asia.

Subthreshold depression is common, impairs functioning and increases the risk of major depression. Improving self-help coping strategies could help subthreshold depression and prevent major depression.

To test the effectiveness of an automated email-based campaign promoting self-help behaviours.

A randomised controlled trial was conducted through the website: www.moodmemos.com. Participants received automated emails twice weekly for 6 weeks containing advice about self-help strategies. Emails containing general information about depression served as a control. The principal outcome was depression symptom level on the nine-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) (trial registration: ACTRN12609000925246).

The study recruited 1326 adults with subthreshold depression. There was a small significant difference in depression symptoms at post-intervention, favouring the active group (d = 0.17, 95% CI 0.01–0.34). There was a lower, although non-significant, risk of major depression in the active group (number needed to treat (NNT) 25, 95% CI 11 to ∞ to NNT(harm) 57).

Emails promoting self-help strategies were beneficial. Internet delivery of self-help messages affords a low-cost, easily disseminated and highly automated approach for indicated prevention of depression.

A 1995 Australian national survey of mental health literacy showed poor recognition of disorders and beliefs about treatment that differed from those of health professionals. A similar survey carried out in 2003/4 showed some improvements over 8 years.

To investigate whether recognition of mental disorders and beliefs about treatment have changed over a 16-year period.

A national survey of 6019 adults was carried out in 2011 using the same questions as the 1995 and 2003/4 surveys.

Results showed improved recognition of depression and more positive ratings for a range of interventions, including help from mental health professionals and antidepressants.

Although beliefs about effective medications and interventions have moved closer to those of health professionals since the previous surveys, there is still potential for mental health literacy gains in the areas of recognition and treatment beliefs for mental disorders. This is particularly the case for schizophrenia.