Introduction
People nowadays engage with digital technologies in varied and sophisticated ways. Digital 2021 (Kemp, Reference Kemp2021) reports that in 2020 more than 1 billion people worldwide faced some kind of disruption to their education due to COVID-19; as a consequence, digital learning innovation has increased. The report further reveals that finding information was the main reason and top motivation for people to go online. As what and how people read are intertwined with technological innovation, societal changes, and lifestyle preferences, it prompts us to rethink what it means to read and acquire literacy.
Reading is a complex process. It requires the reader to draw information from visual features and combine this information with his/her background knowledge to form a coherent construction and reconstruction of text meaning (Grabe & Stoller, Reference Grabe and Stoller2012). Online technologies make it possible for millions of people to access texts that would otherwise be beyond their reach. However, becoming a proficient reader in a new or second language (L2) can be more complex than in the first language (L1) because it involves combining reading resources of both languages into a dual-language processing system (Li & Clariana, Reference Li and Clariana2019). Furthermore, L2 learners need support to overcome linguistic and processing practice limitations to read in a language in which they are not yet proficient (Grabe, Reference Grabe, Deng and Seow2014).
As new technologies flourish, tools for learners and educators also increase. L2 reading has been the area that computer-assisted language learning (CALL) research and practice has consistently highlighted (Blake, Reference Blake2016). Liou (Reference Liou, Farr and Murray2016) surveyed available technological tools, including e-books, weblogs, wikis, Google Docs, corpus and concordances, mobile devices, automatic essay graders, and other innovative programs designed to teach L2 reading and writing. Liaw and English (Reference Liaw, English, Chapelle and Sauro2017) also described an array of options for L2 reading technologies for teaching and learning. Since innovative technologies for language learning and instruction are being developed every day, language educators need to keep abreast of their applications and changes in order to take advantage of their affordances. As reading is an integral part of people’s daily activities, it is imperative to review frequently technologies that are applied to language learning and instruction, not only to assess their present use but also to plan for future practices. In this chapter, the background and historical perspectives of applying computer technologies to teaching and learning reading in L2 are first outlined. The current trends in researching and practicing technological applications to L2 reading are reviewed. Based on research trends and findings, suggestions for effective integration of technologies into L2 reading teaching and learning are provided. Finally, future directions for applying technologies to the teaching and learning of L2 reading are discussed.
Background
The ways that technologies have been used in teaching and learning L2 reading relate closely to our understanding of reading processes, L2 development, and the advancement of technologies (Kern & Warschauer, Reference Kern and Warschauer2000; Stockwell, Reference Stockwell, Deng and Seow2014). Historically, L1 reading theories have had a major impact on L2 reading research as L1 and L2 reading share important basic elements, such as involving the reader, the text, and the interaction between the reader and text (Rumelhart, Reference Rumelhart and Dornic1977). L2 reading, however, has its unique elements, mainly L2 readers’ prior experience, limited L2 knowledge, and ongoing influences from L1 (Koda, Reference Koda1994). Several major perspectives have been applied to explain both L1 and L2 reading processes and provide the theoretical underpinning for designing and implementing computer-assisted teaching and learning of L2 reading, including structural, cognitive, metacognitive, and sociostructural (Liaw & English, Reference Liaw, English, Chapelle and Sauro2017). More recently, data-driven learning (DDL) has been applied to designing CALL-based reading tools, such as concordances, to enhance vocabulary learning and reading comprehension (Liou, Reference Liou, Farr and Murray2016).
The structural perspectives, popular from the 1920s through the 1950s, focus on the printed form of a text and postulate that meaning exists in the text and readers are passive recipients of information (Chun & Plass, Reference Chun and Plass1997). Readers were instructed to acquire hierarchically ordered sub skills to improve their comprehension ability (LaBerge & Samuels, Reference LaBerge and Samuels1974) and read out loud for correct pronunciation (Kern & Warschauer, Reference Kern and Warschauer2000). The earliest CALL programs, adhering to this view, consisted of grammar and vocabulary tutorials, drill and practice programs, and language testing instruments. By the early 1960s, the structural perspectives were challenged as the behaviorist notion of language learning was criticized and replaced with the view that language development was an active process of generating and transforming knowledge.
The cognitive perspectives consider reading as not just getting meaning from a text but also a process of connecting information in the text with the knowledge the reader brings to the act of reading. In this sense, reading is a dialogue between the reader and the text, and it involves an active cognitive process in which the reader’s background knowledge plays a key role in the creation of meaning (Tierney & Pearson, Reference Tierney, Pearson, Rudell and Unrau1994). It is, in essence, a process in which readers sample the text, make hypotheses, confirm or reject them, and make new hypotheses (Goodman, Reference Goodman and Gollasch1976). In line with the cognitive views of learning, CALL programs at the time strived to provide problem-solving and hypothesis-testing tasks via which learners could use existing knowledge to develop new understandings (Kern & Warschauer, Reference Kern and Warschauer2000). Several tenets of the cognitive theory, including noticing (Schmidt, Reference Schmidt1990), focus on form (Long, Reference Long, de Bot, Ginsberg and Kramsch1991), automatization of word recognition (Perfetti, Reference Perfetti1985), and activating prior knowledge (Carrell, Reference Carrell1983), have provided theoretical bases for educators to utilize multimedia reading scaffolds, such as dictionaries, glosses, and annotation for improving vocabulary learning and reading comprehension (Chun & Plass, Reference Chun and Plass1997; Sato, Matsunuma, & Suzuki, Reference Sato, Matsunuma and Suzuki2013).
Block (Reference Block1992) proposed that there should be no more debate on whether reading is a bottom-up, language-based process or a top-down, knowledge-based process. Instead, readers should be encouraged to take control during their reading to understand a text by exercising metacognition. Fluent readers are capable of reflecting on their level of understanding and know what to do when reading difficulties occur. Furthermore, they apply strategies along the process of reading. Metacognitive strategies, such as using schematic knowledge and identifying and planning reading tasks, should be taught to students to improve their reading ability (Boulware-Gooden et al., Reference Boulware-Gooden, Carreker, Thornhill and Malatesha Joshi2007; Kern & Warschauer, Reference Kern and Warschauer2000). In this perspective, technologies, especially networked computers, are used to provide an environment where language learners’ metacognition and L2 reading strategies are fostered through peer interactions (Zhao, Reference Zhao2016). Mobile devices, including tablets, cell phones, and other hand held devices, can be used to support the development of online reading strategies and reading comprehension (Auer, Reference Auer, Keengwe and Maxfield2015; Taki, Reference Taki2015).
The more recent developments in L2 learning provide a way to look into L2 learning through the lenses of sociocultural processes (Lantolf & Thorne, Reference Lantolf, Thorne, van Patten and Williams2007). The sociocultural theory views learning and development as being embedded within social events and occurring as a learner interacts with others (Vygotsky, Reference Vygotsky1978). From this perspective, reading is regarded as a process taking place in particular sociocultural contexts. Reading instruction should focus not only on individual learning strategies but also on helping learners become part of literate communities through extensive discussion of the reading. Network communication technologies, such as email, social media, and text messaging, offer ways for reading to be a social, rather than an individual, process (Chun, Reference Chun2016). The attributes of technology shape the interaction in particular ways, although technology itself does not determine the interaction. The notions derived from sociocultural perspectives, such as situated learning and communities of learning, have led to an increased interest in using web-based tools for vocabulary learning, social reading for L2 literacy, and reading comprehension (Godwin-Jones, Reference Godwin-Jones2015; Wrigglesworth, Reference Wrigglesworth2020).
In addition to the major theoretical influences, DDL (Pérez-Paredes, Reference Pérez-Paredes2019) also impacts the recent applications of technologies to L2 teaching and learning. Data-driven learning is based on corpus linguistics research methods. The most commonly used DDL tool for language learning is a concordance. When a language learner inputs a target word or a phrase, the concordance yields prolific example sentences as language models. The learner can then inductively find out how the target language can be used. Research findings have revealed that using DDL tools could result in increased language sensitivity, noticing, induction, and ability to work with authentic data (Boulton & Cobb, Reference Boulton and Cobb2017). Reading based on DDL has also been found to be beneficial to reading comprehension (Gordani, Reference Gordani2013).
By tracing the history of the theoretical perspectives that have been applied to inform the integration of technologies into L2 reading, we can see how pedagogical practices and the roles of technologies in language learning have also evolved. Nevertheless, as Hubbard and Levy (Reference Hubbard, Levy, Farr and Murray2016, p. 33) have pointed out, “CALL theory in practice is more likely to be an ensemble or a synthesis” as language learning environments are complex and teachers need to assess multiple factors and adopt different perspectives “even those that might on the surface appear incompatible.” Theoretical perspectives will continue to emerge and guide technological applications to teaching L2 reading. As new and exciting technologies are constantly created and made accessible to language learners, the presence of theories can help to guide L2 reading teachers to navigate through the increasingly complex L2 reading and learning environments.
Primary Themes
Second language reading is one of the most exciting and productive areas of CALL research and practices. CALL has the advantage of textual persistence on the computer screen that gives L2 learners time to process unfamiliar linguistic features (Blake, Reference Blake2016). The availability of mediational functions of the internet further allows the reading to go beyond being a solitary activity (Blyth, Reference Blyth, Guikema and Williams2014; Godwin-Jones, Reference Godwin-Jones2015). The prolific digital devices and mobile services prompt CALL researchers and educators to explore their effects on L2 reading.
In Burston’s (Reference Burston2013) review of the published studies from 1994 to 2012 related to mobile-assisted language learning (MALL), about 11 percent (35 of 315) of them are related to reading. Most of them describe the uses and effects of using hand held devices, including PDAs, tablets, cell phones, etc., on L2 reading developments. The various features offered by mobile devices, such as e-dictionaries, annotations, and short messages, were reported to positively affect reading comprehension, motivation to read in L2, or confidence in L2 learning. An updated study by Gutiérrez-Colón, Frumuselu, and Curell (Reference Gutiérrez-Colón, Frumuselu and Curell2020) continued with Burston’s effort and surveyed MALL publications from 2012 to 2017. A total of seventeen articles were annotated. The researchers showed that smartphones and mobile apps (Line, WhatsApp, QR codes, etc.) emerged as new platforms for implementing L2 reading. Blended learning, integrating mobile a pps and L2 reading skills inside and outside the class, has increased.
To further zoom in on the current research and practices of using technologies for L2 reading, we surveyed major CALL journals, including Language Learning and Technology, Computer Assisted Language Learning, ReCALL, and CALICO, for the empirical studies published between 2010 and 2021 related to L2 reading.Footnote 1 Altogether, 34 articles were identified: 7 in Language Learning and Technology, 14 in Computer Assisted Language Learning, 8 in ReCALL, and 5 in CALICO (see Appendix I). Our survey revealed that most of the studies have explored reading in online environments where corpus-informed tools (e.g. glosses, e-dictionaries, concordances, and translation systems), annotation, and social media allowed learners to actively interact with the information or with other learners to achieve the following learning goals: vocabulary and reading comprehension, strategic reading, reading fluency and extensive reading, and motivation. In the following sections, we describe the representative studies focusing on each of these learning goals.
Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension
The majority of the reviewed studies focused on vocabulary growth and reading comprehension. Several centered on the interaction between the L2 learner and the data-driven tools. For example, Wang (Reference Wang2012) found that the e-dictionary helped intermediate learners of Chinese consolidate word meanings and learn new words, but it was less beneficial for more advanced students. As for reading comprehension, all students improved their reading comprehension scores with the use of the e-dictionary. Using corpora, Gordani (Reference Gordani2013) examined the effect of the integration of corpora in general English courses on the student’s vocabulary development. The findings showed that the experimental group outperformed the control group in the post-test, suggesting that the main effect of corpus integration was significant. A study by Sato et al. (Reference Sato, Matsunuma and Suzuki2013) used time-controlled software and found that the time-control function can facilitate the automatization of word decoding skills and reduce the working memory workload. It was also found that reducing the working memory workload leads to a better understanding of the text. Türk and Erçetin (Reference Türk and Erçetin2014) compared the effects of two types of glosses (interactive and simultaneous display of visual and verbal multimedia information) on incidental vocabulary learning and reading comprehension. They found that participants in the simultaneous display condition used glosses more frequently than those in the interactive display condition. They also performed better in reading and vocabulary tests. Chen (Reference Chen2016) also evaluated the influence of different gloss modes (in-text mode, marginal gloss mode, and pop-up mode) on beginner-level ESL college students’ L2 reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition. Their findings showed that the marginal gloss mode resulted in the highest scores in the multiple-choice test, whereas in-text glosses brought about the best performance in the rest of the tests, and pop-up glosses led to the lowest scores in all four tests. In a recent study, Ballance (Reference Ballance2021) focused on the potential of concordances extracted from general and more specialized corpora to provide an increased lexical-repetition effect. The findings showed that concordances extracted from more general corpora had higher type-token ratio levels than concordances extracted from more specialized corpora.
More recent studies have tended to use technological tools for discussion and interaction among peers. For instance, Tseng, Yeh, and Yang (Reference Tseng, Yeh and Yang2015) investigated the effects of online annotations on surface-based, text-based, and situation-based reading comprehension levels. They found that students made four types of annotation, namely marking vocabulary, adding Chinese explanatory notes to unknown vocabulary, marking text information, and adding summary notes to each paragraph. Reflection led them to a deeper level of reading comprehension. Yeh, Hung, and Chiang (Reference Yeh, Hung and Chiang2017) analyzed how students used annotations in a collaborative learning environment. The findings showed an improvement in the student’s reading comprehension scores after the intervention. It was also found that students whose marks had improved the most had also provided extensive feedback to their peers. Law, Barny, and Poulin (Reference Law, Barny and Poulin2020) had their students use the digital tool, eComma, to annotate the lyrics of several L2 songs. The findings showed that social engagement, as measured by the frequency of questions and replies and word count, decreased over time, and linguistic affordances increased in later songs.
Strategic Reading
The second-largest category of studies focuses on the specific strategies L2 learners need to use when reading online texts. Roy and Crabbe (Reference Roy and Crabbe2015) focused on students’ ability to search for keywords from an EFL website, identify key top-down menus and links, and use appropriate cognitive and metacognitive reading strategies to analyze the webpage. The participants in Huang’s (Reference Huang2015) study were asked to read online materials to produce voice blogs. The students reported having difficulties finding relevant information online because of their limited knowledge of using search engines and because they were unable to select appropriate information by skimming and scanning the online texts. Tsai’s (Reference Tsai2017) study focused on the role of reading strategies in a Chinese–English translation task in an English for specific purposes course. It was found that the most frequently used type of strategy was compensation strategies, which were used when encountering problems with unknown vocabulary or lack of content knowledge. In addition, repeatedly learning vocabulary was the most frequent individual strategy. They concluded that Moodle-supported strategy instruction can facilitate EFL students’ overall reading comprehension and strategy use.
Reading Fluency and Extensive Reading
Another focus has been on reading fluency and extensive reading with the help of corpus tools and social media. For example, Hadley and Charles (Reference Hadley and Charles2017) used Oxford Bookworms Graded Readers to stimulate greater lexicogrammatical knowledge and reading fluency among lower proficiency learners in an extensive reading program. Although it was found that both groups had a statistically significant lexicogrammatical improvement, the control group outperformed the experimental group. The researchers concluded that for students of lower proficiency, attention to their reading preferences and applying a softening DDL approach would have worked better. Arndt and Woore’s (Reference Arndt and Woore2018) analyzed whether video blogs or written blog posts lead to incidental vocabulary learning and differences in which aspects of vocabulary knowledge are best learned from these media. The scores on the various tasks showed that the students in the blog group gained more orthographic knowledge from pseudowords than the students in the vblog group.
Motivation
Second language learners’ motivation to read has been explored as well. Huang (Reference Huang2013a) examined students’ perceptions of e-book reading as an L2 learning tool. Students had access to audio e-books selected from free audio e-book downloading websites, online bilingual dictionaries, and other online reading help tools. Data from questionnaires and interviews showed that students highlighted the potential of e-books to improve their reading habits and increase their motivation. Combining extensive reading with online writing was found to have enhanced students’ reading interest and improved their writing skills (Sun, Yang, & He, Reference Sun, Yang and He2016). In the study, each participant had access to one computer in class to discuss and collaborate with their classmates and teachers. The findings showed that the extensive reading program enhanced students’ reading interest and improved their writing skills.
From the review studies on mobile applications on L2 reading by Burston (Reference Burston2013) and Gutiérrez-Colón et al. (Reference Gutiérrez-Colón, Frumuselu and Curell2020), and our review of the published studies in four major CALL journals from 2010 to 2021, it is evident that emerging technologies of different shapes and sizes have been contributing to the various aspects of L2 reading development. Despite variations in how they were integrated into instructional activities and how their effectiveness was assessed, researchers and educators have been experiencing varying levels of success. The enthusiasm for applying technological tools to L2 reading will continue to grow. It is not only because the two are tightly related to each other, but, more importantly, there is still so much more to learn as they evolve and transform either side-by-side or together.
Current Research and Practice
Chun, Kern, and Smith (Reference Chun, Kern and Smith2016) offer a set of heuristic questions to help guide language teachers and researchers in incorporating technology into their teaching practice or research plan. These questions are excellent for L2 reading teachers to consider: (1) What learning goals do I have for my students? 2) What instructional resources do I have available? 3) How can these resources be used to serve the established learning goals? (4) How will I assess how effective students’ use of these resources is in attaining the established learning goals?
Setting Learning Goals
In terms of setting learning goals for L2 reading, Grabe (Reference Grabe, Deng and Seow2014) has pointed out that learning activities should support the following: word recognition skills, recognition vocabulary, comprehension skills, discourse structure, strategic reading, reading fluency, extensive reading, motivation, and combining language and content learning. He further suggested instructional activities to reach these goals. For students at the beginning and low intermediate levels, developing the ability to recognize easily letter–sound correspondences and frequent words should be emphasized. Since adequate vocabulary size is fundamental for reading comprehension, teachers of all levels need to work with students to build their L2 vocabulary. For more advanced L2 readers, approximately a 10,000-word or above recognition vocabulary level should be targeted. To further strengthen L2 reading comprehension skills, teachers may design activities for students to engage in reading through multiple strategies and develop a heightened level of metacognitive awareness. Fostering students’ ability to become aware of text structure and discourse organization would also help enhance reading comprehension and reading fluency. Graded readers and level-appropriate reading materials are considered good extensive reading resources. Motivational support from teachers is emphasized as it is crucial to L2 learners’ development of reading comprehension abilities and extensive reading. Finally, Grabe (Reference Grabe, Deng and Seow2014) counseled that content area reading contextualizes reading experiences and can be motivational to students. It also provides opportunities for extended reading and increases choices of reading materials.
Understanding the Affordances of Instructional Resources
Following the guiding questions by Chun et al. (Reference Chun2016), upon setting the L2 reading learning goals, the teacher may consider the instructional resources available for reaching them. Knowing the affordances of different types of technologies can better ensure effective selection and integration. In the following, based on Grabe’s (Reference Grabe, Deng and Seow2014) suggested learning goals for L2 reading, we provide recommendations of tools that researchers have found to be effective.
As the review of the current CALL-based L2 reading studies has shown, glossing, multimedia glossing, concordances, and dictionaries within a computer-supported or mobile-assisted environment can be beneficial to vocabulary building and improvement in reading comprehension (Blake, Reference Blake2016; Chen, Reference Chen2016; Gordani, Reference Gordani2013; Hadley & Charles, Reference Hadley and Charles2017; Koyama & Take uchi, Reference Koyama and Takeuchi2013; Türk & Erçetin, Reference Türk and Erçetin2014; Wang, Reference Wang2012). Coupling their uses with a time-control function can offer additional benefits of automatizing word decoding skills and a better comprehension of the text (Sato et al., Reference Sato, Matsunuma and Suzuki2013). Reading‐level classification tools can effectively increase L2 learners’ reading speed, lexical knowledge, and grammatical improvement (Hadley & Charles, Reference Hadley and Charles2017).
Online video-sharing platforms and social media (e.g. Youtube and blogs) have been found to be able to help students gain knowledge of the targeted words’ grammatical functions and greater recognition and recall of their meanings (Arndt & Woore, Reference Arndt and Woore2018). Digital annotation tools can be used for L2 learners to engage in social interaction by tagging or posting comments when jointly reading selected text passages (Blyth, Reference Blyth, Guikema and Williams2014). Such activities can be conducive to developing reading strategies and better comprehension skills as learners collaboratively read and annotate texts (Godwin-Jones, Reference Godwin-Jones2015; Law et al. Reference Law, Barny and Poulin2020; Yeh et al., Reference Yeh, Hung and Chiang2017). An additional advantage of social reading is the increased opportunity for learners to engage in reading and quality interaction outside school (Murphy, Reference Murphy2010).
Allowing students to select and read web materials, such as online news and magazines, on issues of interest to them may give them opportunities to employ knowledge relevant to the materials (Huang, Reference Huang2015) and enhance the recall of information (Erçetin, Reference Erçetin2010). Website analysis involving reading and searching for online information and recording impressions, and critiquing website designs can help L2 learners to exercise metacognitive reading strategies (Roy & Crabbe, Reference Roy and Crabbe2015). Students may also benefit from teachers’ guidance on choosing appropriate keywords for information searches and exercising reading strategies to comprehend the information (Huang, Reference Huang2013b). Reading authentic materials online gives students repeated vocabulary exposure and helps to boost learners’ confidence and motivation in L2 reading (Johnson & Heffernan, Reference Johnson and Heffernan2006).
In Appendix II, types and examples of technological tools that researchers have found effective in reaching various learning goals in L2 reading are provided. The software or apps are free to download and use (except the one marked with an asterisk).
Flexible Uses of Technologies for Effective Instruction
Besides understanding the affordances of instructional resources, teachers need to be flexible users and know how to combine them to reach established goals. Different technological tools can be applied to accomplish different L2 reading objectives. Similarly, different technological tools may be juxtaposed to enhance the learning of one aspect of L2 reading development. At the same time, it is important to keep in mind the possibility of cognitive overload and reduced L2 online reading and vocabulary learning outcomes when a variety of elements and tools are used (Al-Shehri & Gitsake, Reference Al-Shehri and Gitsake2010). Making technological tools available to students does not necessarily lead to better learning. In some cases, especially with tools with sophisticated features, it might be essential to provide explicit training for students to benefit from their affordances (Huang, Reference Huang2013b).
Assess the Effectiveness of Resource Usage
For assessing the effectiveness of resource usage, Chun et al. (Reference Chun2016) emphasize the importance of knowing the interactional effects among the tool’s affordances, the experiences and expectations of students, and the language learning environment itself. Technological tools have specific affordances and constraints and should not be judged by the “effective/ineffective” dichotomy. Hubbard (Reference Hubbard, Ducate and Arnold2011) suggests examining how a resource is compatible with the learner variables, such as age, proficiency level, educational experiences, and so on, and if the resource is compatible with a teacher’s beliefs regarding the usefulness of the technology as a tool for teaching L2 reading. What is available inside and outside the classroom is also a fundamental factor to consider. Teachers who do not have the best tools available can only make the best of what’s available. For assessing how learners are engaging with a tool (or not) and why they are making their choices, teachers can use student surveys, questionnaires, self-reports, and interviews, both formally and informally. Many digital tools and learning programs record and archive users’ online behaviors and allow teachers to track students’ learning trajectories.
Future Directions
The widespread access to reading resources and the various forms of reading online are transforming the concept of reading and how reading can be taught and learned. Liou (Reference Liou, Farr and Murray2016) suggested that an increase in available tool options would give teachers flexibilities to combine tools in their teaching and allow students to engage in informal, lifelong learning. Liaw and English (Reference Liaw, English, Chapelle and Sauro2017) indicated that the future directions for applying technology to L2 reading development would be shaped by three trends in learning technology: ubiquitous learning, adaptive learning and personalization, and autonomous learning. In this chapter, a review of more up-to-date studies resonates with their assertions. Furthermore, as reading resources and technological tools to facilitate L2 reading are increasingly accessible online via mobile devices, not only has reading become a social activity, but so are the processes of developing reading skills (Blyth, Reference Blyth, Guikema and Williams2014). Reading is not merely interacting with technologies (Cobb, Reference Cobb and Liontas2018). Instead, it allows L2 learners to interact with text and with others in compelling ways. Reading and learning to read are interactive processes where meaning is socially constructed (Law et al., Reference Law, Barny and Poulin2020). Within such contexts, social affordances of technological tools may outnumber linguistic ones (Thoms & Pool, Reference Thoms and Poole2017). At the same time, we have been warned that the affordances of interactivity also lead to distracted minds, hyperactivity, and information overload (Bauerlein, Reference Bauerlein2011; Godwin-Jones, Reference Godwin-Jones2015). Given that we still have much to learn about the social dimensions of L2 reading as participatory meaning constructions, such issues await further exploration. Also, as CALL nowadays is situated in a much more multimodal milieu, reading entails interacting with multimodal texts and taking advantage of multimodal tools (Arndt & Woore, Reference Arndt and Woore2018; Huang, Reference Huang2015; Law et al., Reference Law, Barny and Poulin2020; Türk & Erçetin, Reference Türk and Erçetin2014). Teachers need to address multiliteracies and multimodal expressions to help L2 learners understand and appreciate multimedia materials fully. How to effectively develop learners’ ability to be critically aware of the symbolic and virtual realities of technology would be a pedagogical issue and a topic for researchers to tackle.
As this chapter was being written, the COVID-19 pandemic was causing disruption to schooling worldwide. To cope with the disruption, libraries and publishers we re making reading material and other resources freely available online. Nonetheless, according to UN News (2021), 100 million more children fail basic reading skills because of the pandemic. How the “new normal” of social distancing and remote learning brought on by the pandemic affects L2 reading development awaits to be investigated. More importantly, educators and researchers need to work together in search of innovative ways to take on the challenges imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic.
