The services sector has been the centrepiece of Rwanda’s development strategy since 2000. This chapter describes the evolution of the Rwandan Patriotic Front’s (RPF) goals of transforming its landlocked disadvantages into an opportunity through becoming land-linked. In particular, the goal involves Rwanda becoming a regional hub for transport, tourism, sports and finance. The chapter begins by providing a critical overview of services-based strategies, highlighting their merits and limitations. It then describes the contradictory tensions emerging within Rwanda’s services-based strategy, particularly because the progressive image the RPF attempts to portray is often at odds with domestic realities. The evolution of Rwanda’s tourism strategy is discussed, which focuses on attracting high-end tourists and transforming Kigali into a hub for transport, high-profile events and conferences. The chapter describes how services strategies have evolved in line with Rwanda’s political settlement: at first, providing opportunities to private Rwandan capitalists but then gradually relying on foreign investors and government-affiliated investors. The chapter highlights that Rwanda’s strategy failed to prioritise linkages, which is a result of the elite vulnerability shaping domestic state–business relationships.

Sons and Lovers (1913) struggles to contain conflicting early directions in Lawrence’s prose fiction: a yearning of his own to show his characters’ psycho-emotional states – dramatically and situationally rendered, as encouraged by his mentors Ford Madox Ford and Edward Garnett – to be also diagnostic of broader cultural crises. Examination of the successive versions of the novel and of its immediate predecessor The Trespasser (1912), novels whose stages of writing, rewriting and revision weave chronologically around one another, helps explain Lawrence’s denigration of artistic form – his mentors’ touchstone – even as he was learning how to master it. His dissatisfaction with the result would push his writing along demanding new paths.

This chapter introduces the ‘structuralist’ form of political settlements analysis employed in this book. The political settlements framework, initially developed by Mushtaq Khan, has gained increasing popularity but has evolved in very different directions. Political settlements analysis (PSA) was appealing to scholars because it encouraged analysis of power relations shaping development policy, highlighting how distributions of power among organised groups shaped how institutions operated. Influential donor-funded research programmes have aligned it more with neoclassical economics, and this has led to the obfuscation of the structuralist and historical materialist roots of the framework. This chapter elaborates the structuralist and historical materialist roots of political settlements analysis. It highlights the differences between non-structuralist and structuralist approaches to political settlements analysis in relation to the concept of holding power and its components: economic structure, rents, ideas and ideology, and violence and conflict. The chapter highlights how PSA can be used to help understand the contemporary transnational nature of vulnerabilities shaping late-development challenges.

This chapter describes Rwanda’s record within the manufacturing sector. Until recently, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) did not prioritise manufacturing-based growth because of the high transport costs associated with its landlocked geographical position. While there has been some attempt at refocusing on industrial policy since 2015, because of a rising trade deficit and the urgent need to create employment, there has not been substantial progress. Rwanda has not achieved significant advances in increasing industrial employment, production and exports. After presenting the evolution of Rwanda’s industrial policy, the chapter provides detailed examples of three sectors: apparels (textiles and garments), construction materials and pharmaceuticals. In line with dynamics in other sectors, domestic capital has been marginalised in favour of supporting RPF-affiliated firms or relying on foreign investors. Some foreign investors like Volkswagen and BioNTech have invested in Rwanda with much fanfare, but most success has been driven by RPF-affiliated firms. Rwanda’s hopes for structural transformation fall at a key domestic hurdle: building effective state–business relationships aimed at technological capability acquisition for latecomer firms.

The book’s challenge is to carve out a literary-critical approach that brings all sides of Lawrence’s verbal art forms together as a recognisable whole, but not by the traditional means of defining an underlying philosophy. Instead a bio-bibliographically informed approach traces Lawrence’s developing imaginary, his unfolding intellectual project, along highways and byways alike until his broader oeuvre-in-process becomes the object of study. The book analyses work-versions, where significant developments are materially witnessed, rather than confining attention to the works’ published forms. Zooming in to focus on changed patterns and wordings on this manuscript or that typescript is followed by a pulling back to survey the wider patterning and stylistic shift. Cross-currents from his reading, marriage and friendships circulated through his contemporaneous writings in all its forms. This shifting repertoire of image and idea was increasingly organised by a structural habit of projecting polarised fundamentals into staged encounters with his subject matter. A text-gambler, Lawrence would trust this performative approach to dictate the movement of idea and attitude.

The first chapter concerns the significance of ethnic-national identity. It first gives a methodological argument for the focus on organizations. It then offers a breakdown of Shiʿite organizations and their interlocking board memberships in Britain and the Netherlands. This establishes ethnic-national identity as the bedrock of Shiʿite organization in the UK-Dutch sample. An Islamic thought pattern exemplified by the Shiʿite notable Ali Allawi is used to frame several cases of civic engagement that transcend the ethnic-national mould and show Shiʿism as a political actor, whose role is limited, however, by low organization density. The organizations of this chapter are ‘contrapuntal’ not only in the civic-ethnic contrast, but also in that between ethnic-national reality and the Islamic norm of parochial transcendence. Moreover, organizational reality contrasts a key trend in the social science theory of Islam in Europe, which presents Europe as an assimilating force leading to Muslims’ de-ethnicization. This first chapter indicates the opposite: identitarian retention.