In contrast to great apes, gestural communication including hand and body gestures has been poorly investigated in monkeys. In the last twenty years in the studied group, the research conducted into the baboons (Papio anubis) housed in social groups at the Station de Primatologie CNRS (South of France), has reported some key properties of language such as intentionality, learning flexibility as well as the underlying lateralization and hemispheric specialization of the brain. This chapter also addresses specifically the question of referential properties of some gestures in baboons. These latter researches suggest that some individuals are not only able to learn to point “imperatively” to request food but also “declaratively” to show object within mother–infant interaction. According to these collective findings, which are congruent with the ones reported in great apes, it is thus not excluded that features of gestural communication shared between humans, great apes and baboons, may have played a critical role in the phylogenetic roots of language and dated back, not to the Hominidae evolution, but rather to their much older catarrhine common ancestor 25–40 million years ago.

3A Temperature in Thermodynamics

For an infinitesimal reversible process, a combination of first and second laws of thermodynamics results

where 𝑌 𝑑𝑋 denotes the generalized expression for work done by the system, 𝑑𝑆 is the change in entropy, and 𝑑𝑈 is the change in internal energy of the system. Equation (16) leads to the definition of temperature 𝑇 as

Thus, equation (17) indicates that the temperature at any point depends on the slope of the 𝑆 − 𝑈 curve. If the slope of this curve (point 𝐴 in Figure 3A.1) is positive, the temperature will be positive. On the other hand, the temperature will be negative for the negative slope of the curve (point 𝐶 in Figure 3A.1).

The book Heat and Thermodynamics: Theory, Problems, and Solutions is an informal, readable introduction to the basic ideas of thermal physics. It is aimed at making the reader comfortable with this text as a first course in Heat and Thermodynamics. The basic principles and phenomenological aspects required for the development of the subject are discussed at length. In particular, the extremum principles of entropy and free energies are presented elaborately to make the content of the book comprehensive. The book provides a succinct presentation of the material so that the student can more easily determine the major objective of each section of a particular chapter. In fact, thermal physics is not the subject in physics that starts with its epigrammatic equations—Newton’s, Maxwell’s, or Schrodinger’s, which provide accessibility and direction. Instead, it (thermodynamics) can be regarded as a subject formed by the set of rules and constraints governing interconversion and dissipation of energy in macroscopic systems. Further, the syllabus of statistical mechanics for graduate students has changed significantly with the introduction of National Education Policy 2020.

Thermal physics has established the principles and procedures needed to understand and explain the properties of systems consisting of macroscopically large numbers of particles, typically of the order of 1023 or so. Examples of such collections of systems include the molecules in a closed vessel, the air in a balloon, the water in a lake, the electrons in a piece of metal, and the photons (electromagnetic wave packets) emitted by the Sun. By developing the macroscopic classical thermodynamic descriptions, the book Heat and Thermodynamics: Theory, Problems, and Solutions provides insights into basic concepts and relationships at an advanced undergraduate level. This book is updated throughout, providing a highly detailed, profoundly thorough, and comprehensive introduction to the subject. The laws of probability are used to predict the bulk properties like stiffness, heat capacity, and the physics of phase transition, and magnetization of such systems.

The chapter examines a match from the last days of the Cold War. For forty-plus years of East–West conflict, men’s football had mattered more than women’s football. This began to change when China played Norway in the first match of the first Women’s World Cup in November 1991. The tournament in China marked the end of one era, and the start of several new ones, in women’s sport and sports diplomacy. China’s hosting of the tournament, its close relationship with FIFA, and its thrashing of Norway announced a new Asian sporting superpower. But while China won the opener in Guangzhou on 16 November, the West won the tournament, as the USA beat Norway 2–1 to claim the inaugural World Cup two weeks later. These three countries dominated women’s football in the 1990s, a vital decade in the game’s development, which ended with the USA beating China in front of 90,000 people in California to win the third World Cup. The 1991 tournament didn’t overturn male domination of the world’s biggest sport. But it suggested new directions at the end of the Cold War, a bright future where women footballers helped reshape politics and society on both sides of the torn Iron Curtain.