There are also purely algebraic reasons why nilpotent groups should be of interest. Firstly, there is the well-known connection between homology, lower central series and (Massey) products [Dw75, St65].

This chapter reviews the expanding legal scope of the subject, noting the universalisation of international law beyond its European roots and the development of international human rights law and international criminal law, as well as the rise of international organisations. Modern theories and interpretations are examined, ranging from the natural law/positive law debates, referring to Kelsen and Hart in particular, to more contemporary approaches, such as power politics and balance of power, behaviouralism and the policy-oriented school including the views of McDougal and Franck, with the latter’s focus on legitimacy, and on to the critical legal studies movement, noting the important work of Koskenniemi, particularly emphasising the relationship between law and society. These various theories and approaches illustrate and reveal the political, ethical and social aspects of international law. The chapter then turns to discuss the problem of the fragmentation of international law, with the rise of special treaty regimes and particular rules, and how the system may deal with this phenomenon.

Chapter 7 looks at the role of officials in carrying out religious policy. It begins with an analysis of their social profile from the 1950s to the Cultural Revolution and shows that despite officials’ rising literacy and improved political education, they found it hard to carry out a policy that demanded respect for religious freedom, on the one hand, and the elimination of folk religion, coded as ‘feudal superstition’. The chapter looks at four dimensions of officials’ involvement in implementing religious policy: their response to the destruction of lineages and to the persistence of lineage sentiment; their involvement in the levelling of gravesites during collectivization; their relationship to the popular upsurge to restore the ‘sacred village’ in the aftermath of the famine; and the support of a significant minority in sustaining folk religion. It shows grassroots officials displayed a variety of responses to folk religion, which affected the experiences of believers.

This chapter examines the foreign teacher recruitment strategies mobilized by Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire. Economists and politicians agreed that secondary schools were crucial for producing the skilled workers essential to development. But new nations faced an intractable roadblock as they sought to expand secondary schools: a deficit of local teachers. Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire found different solutions to the crisis of teacher scarcity, although both relied on foreigners. Ghana turned to plural sources of generally inexperienced educators. Côte d’Ivoire, instead, leaned on French teachers available through technical assistance (or coopération). Both strategies responded to the maddening paradox of the postcolonial teacher: a role that West Africans agreed was essential, but which few opted to pursue. Ultimately, the reliance on foreign teachers contributed to the corrosion of the emancipatory project of public education.

In this chapter, we provide an overview of how second languages (L2s) are acquired, processed and represented in the brain. We begin by reviewing experimental methods, along with relevant studies employing them, with a particular focus on fMRI and EEG, two metabolic and electrophysiological measures that elucidate our knowledge of multiple languages in one brain. We then discuss a few moderating effects of L2 acquisition along with a dialogue of how multilinguals process structure and meaning as elaborated in key theories. Finally, we elaborate on how research on multiple memory systems can possibly shed light on the acquisition and teaching of L2s in the classroom with respect to the effectiveness of the explicit presentation of grammar rules and feedback. We conclude by identifying research topics that are shaping ongoing work in bilingual processing and sparking new dialogues that have the potential to significantly advance the field.

This chapter examines the culmination of the militarisation of economic interdependence through Franco-Russian relations between 1912 and 1914. From summer 1913, French diplomats, for the first time, made a loan conditional on Russian military commitments. The Russian military was already working to accelerate mobilisation, but required finance to build railway infrastructure. French politicians also responded to the German threat by adding a third year of military service. These measures tested the fiscal capacity of the French state and governments became mired in crises over tax reform and loans in 1913 and 1914. An increasing willingness to countenance the use of military force was evident in Russian discussions to seize the Straits from the Ottoman empire in a future crisis, reflecting a lack of alternative economic instruments for Russia. The shift in Russian policy was encapsulated by the sacking of Vladimir Kokovtsov, a long-time advocate of foreign policy restraint, as Premier and Finance Minister.

Hypertensive emergency is an acute elevation of blood pressure (usually >180/110 mmHg) associated with end-organ injury. Hypertensive emergency can be present at lower blood pressures with hypertension-associated signs and symptoms. Treatment of hypertensive emergency includes frequent blood pressure monitoring and neurologic checks, administering IV antihypertensive medications, and evaluating for evidence of end-organ damage. The treatment goal is to reduce mean arterial pressure (MAP) by a maximum of 20−25% in the first 1−2 hours and then, if clinically stable, reduce BP to 160/100 mmHg over the next 6−12 hours. Aggressive reduction in blood pressure can lead to coronary, cerebral, or renal hypoperfusion. Pharmacologic therapy should be used to provide a predictable, titratable, and transient effect on blood pressure. If a patient presents with symptoms consistent with ischemic stroke, it is recommended to only treat BP if it exceeds 220/120 mmHg. In a patient not undergoing reperfusion therapy, treat with a goal to reduce BP by 10−15%. If the patient is a candidate for reperfusion therapy, the BP should be lowered if it is above 185/110 mmHg. Hypertensive emergency warrants medical admission with telemetry or ICU.

Particle motion. The development derives expressions for velocity and acceleration in terms of rectangular coordinates, followed by polar and spherical coordinate systems. A novel derivation of formulas for general curvilinear coordinates is provided in an online supplement. The focus then shifts to situations in which the path of a particle is known. This calls for the use of path variables, also known as tangent-normal components. Formulas are derived for paths that are twisted in three dimension, such as a rollercoaster. The closing topic is the method of mixed kinematical descriptions, which addresses situations in which aspects from two different descriptions are used to facilitate solutions of challenging problems.

In this chapter, we present and discuss the contributions that usage-based theories of language have made to the theory and practice of second language learning and teaching. Soon after its establishment as an independent theoretical framework, usage-based linguistics inaugurated an applied branch with two volumes by Pütz et al. dedicated to second language acquisition (SLA) and language pedagogy (LP). Rather unusually, usage-based theories retained a close link between linguistic theory, the theoretical study of language acquisition and the development of language pedagogy, resulting in a number of direct applications of usage-based linguistic insights to the study of language learning and teaching.Because of the crucial role that cognitive capacities play in usage-based approaches they are naturally amenable to the integration of insights from psychology. We will zoom in on a particularly fruitful line of research that has seen insights from the psychology of learning applied to language across L1 and in L2. Looking ahead, we discus work that puts learning models from psychology to use for the operationalisation of the usage-based notion of emergence, thereby challenging traditional assumptions regarding the mental representations of language attributed to language learners by linguists and how these apply to the theory and practice of L2 learning and teaching.

From the late nineteenth century onwards, Greek and Roman religion was increasingly characterised as ritualistic and collective, with little role for belief, while belief itself was increasingly associated with Christianity. By the 1990s, the dominant view in classical studies aligned closely with functionalist traditions in the wider study of religion, linking Greek and Roman religion with social cohesion and identity, and rejecting belief as an irrelevance. Since then, fresh arguments have emerged, some drawing on the cognitive science of religion, which reject the association of belief with Christianity and argue that a culturally neutral, purely propositional sense of believing is both possible and necessary. However, work in anthropology and early modern history, particularly on the emergence of ‘propositional religion’ during the Reformation, suggests that the concept of belief continues to carry complex cultural baggage. Despite recent developments, the debate over how best to represent the religious experience of the Greeks and Romans remains open.

Snakebites can be life-threatening if the snake is venomous. Venomous snakes can be classified as elapids or crotalids, with crotalid envenomation being more common. Pit vipers, a type of crotalid, can bite and deliver venom, or without envenomation, which is called a dry bite. Crotalid venom is predominantly cytolytic and may cause edema, hemorrhage, and necrosis close to and far away from the bite. Systemic signs and symptoms may include hemolysis, thrombocytopenia, disseminated intravascular coagulopathy, vomiting, and cardiovascular and respiratory failure. If no local or systemic signs are noted, the patient can be monitored for 12 hours and released if no signs or symptoms develop. Antivenom should be provided if the patient experiences signs or symptoms of envenomation.

The presence of witches in Walter Scott’s Waverly novels is suggestive of social and occasionally political disorder, but their presence – like the context of revolutionary crises – also provides his male characters with an opportunity to confront something larger than themselves, a possibly inimical force, and to evolve in this process. Scott, not satisfied with collecting works of demonology, decided to write one himself. This chapter investigates the tensions in his Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft between Scott’s impartiality as a demonologist and a writer of historical fiction, his antiquarian impulse and the genuine sympathy he has for women accused of witchcraft.

This chapter contains a case of pediatric fever in a 20-month-old child with fever for five days. This case goes through the typical presentation of a child with Kawasaki disease, which is an acute vasculitis of childhood. Kawaski disease is known to be the leading cause of acquired heart disease in North American children. Though the cause remains unknown, the disease is well described clinically as: fever for 5 days, conjunctival injection, oral mucosa erythema, swelling or desquamation of the palms and soles, polymorphous rash, and cervical lymphadenopathy. Lab abnormalities such as an elevated ESR, CRP, and WBC can support the diagnosis or aid in diagnosing incomplete or atypical Kawasaki. Other labs that can support this would be left shift of WBC, anemia for age, thrombocytosis, sterile pyuria, ALT elevation, and low albumin. Kawasaki disease is associated strongly with coronary artery aneurysms; however, a small percentage of patients develop dysrhythmias or myocardial infarction. Treatment of Kawasaki disease includes IVIG and aspirin.

Chapter 5 addressing the learning and teaching of concepts adopts a Piagetian developmental perspective contrasted with classically based philosophical approaches that define completed concepts through rigid definitions, prototypes, or theories. Piaget emphasizes the dynamic processes of assimilation and accommodation through which individuals construct concepts based on discrepant experiences. This constructive process is inherently personal and internal. A teacher supporting concept development works through a hypothetical learning trajectory that envisions the student’s current understanding and the transformational processes through which a more sound conceptualization may arise. Lecturing about concepts can be a successful strategy provided the student is metacognitively sophisticated and can sense discrepancies between the ideas presented by the teacher and their own conceptions of the content.

This chapter describes the immunophenotype of adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL). The differential diagnosis, including mycosis fungoides/Sezary syndrome (MF/SS), T-prolymphocytic leukemia (T-PLL), anaplastic large cell lymphoma (ALCL), and normal T-regulatory cells, is discussed in detail.