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12144 results in Cambridge Handbooks

Page 554 of 608

  • Chapter 11 - Prodigies and Savants

  • from Part III - Intelligence and Group Differences
  • Edited by Robert J. Sternberg, Oklahoma State University, Scott Barry Kaufman, New York University
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence
    Published online:
    05 June 2012
    Print publication:
    30 May 2011, pp 210-234

  • Summary

    This chapter describes cited contemporary models of intelligence for each of the three levels: psychometric, physiological, and social. The contemporary models that bridge more than one level are examined. The chapter discusses the extended theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence (Gf-Gc theory), the three-stratum theory, the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory, and critique of the psychometric level and its models. According to the dual process (DP) theory intelligent behavior can be explained through a hierarchical structure of directed and spontaneous mental processes. Sternberg notes that his analytic, practical, and creative aspects of intelligence could be applied to Gardner's domains of intelligences. Similarly, neuroimaging studies could examine areas of the brain that are activated before and after the acquisition of expertise. The psychometric, physiological, and social levels and their current models have headed the field of intelligence down three productive paths. Perhaps the time has come for these paths to converge into one.

  • Chapter 8 - Intelligence in Childhood

  • from Part II - Development of Intelligence
  • Edited by Robert J. Sternberg, Oklahoma State University, Scott Barry Kaufman, New York University
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence
    Published online:
    05 June 2012
    Print publication:
    30 May 2011, pp 144-173

  • Summary

    This chapter discusses measuring of intelligence by Francis Galton, J. McK. Cattell, and Alfred Binet. Charles Spearman abhorred the program that would separate the mind into a loose confederation of independent faculties of learning, memory and attention. Although most intelligence researchers today probably accept that the general factor is to stay, they remain sharply divided on its explanation. These disagreements go well beyond a rejection of Spearman's specific suggestions that g is either mental energy or the eduction of relations and correlates. Spearman saw that he needed to provide a psychological or (better still) a neurobiological explanation of g. The two favorite paradigms for this program of research were inspection time (IT) and choice reaction time (RT). Aided by the new technologies of brain imaging, research on intelligence, working memory, and other so-called executive functions has begun to point to some of the brain structures common to them all.

  • Chapter 33 - Society and Intelligence

  • from Part VII - Intelligence and Society
  • Edited by Robert J. Sternberg, Oklahoma State University, Scott Barry Kaufman, New York University
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence
    Published online:
    05 June 2012
    Print publication:
    30 May 2011, pp 666-682

  • Summary

    This chapter presents evidence that mechanisms relating to the cognitive unconscious: mental structures, processes, and states that can influence experience, thought, and actions outside phenomenal awareness and voluntary control make an important contribution to intelligent behavior. There have been some recent studies that look at individual differences in the cognitive unconscious. The chapter focuses on individual differences and reviews recent empirical work on relations among the cognitive processes underlying psychometric intelligence and the cognitive processes underlying the cognitive unconscious, attempting to bridge two major research programs that, until recently, have traveled on separate but parallel paths. The dual-process theory of human intelligence aims to integrate modern dual-process theories of cognition with research on intelligence. By fostering collaborations across the various areas of psychology and related disciplines, and incorporating dual-process theory into thinking, one should be able to come to a fuller, more complete understanding of human intelligence.

  • Chapter 31 - Intelligence in Worldwide Perspective

  • from Part VII - Intelligence and Society
  • Edited by Robert J. Sternberg, Oklahoma State University, Scott Barry Kaufman, New York University
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence
    Published online:
    05 June 2012
    Print publication:
    30 May 2011, pp 623-646

  • Summary

    Baddeley and Hitch proposed a more complex construct, working memory (WM), that could maintain information in a readily accessible state, consistent with the short-term store (STS), but could also engage in concurrent processing, as well as maintain access to more information than the limited capacity STS could purportedly maintain. Delineating the exact characteristics of WM and accounting for variation in working memory capacity (WMC) continues to be an extremely active area of research. Various measures of WMC have been shown to correlate quite strongly with measures of intelligence, accounting for at least half the variance in fluid intelligence (gf). The multi-mechanism view of the relationship between WMC and gf also has implications for research on WM training and for cognitive therapy for the elderly and patients with neural damage or disease. WMC is strongly correlated with gf.

  • 12 - Archiving and language documentation

  • from Part II - Language documentation
  • Edited by Peter K. Austin, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Julia Sallabank, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages
    Published online:
    05 June 2012
    Print publication:
    24 March 2011, pp 235-254

  • Summary

    The field of language ecology studies the interrelationships between speakers and their languages as situated in their full (contemporary and historical) context. In its strong version, a theory of language ecology likens competition between languages to the competition between species and provides mechanisms for accounting for the survival of the fittest (languages). Language planning should take into account the overall language ecology of any group, which can be seen as a framework or model for analysing the relationship between linguistic practices on the context, or milieu, in which they are situated, that is, their ecolinguistic niche. Most linguists would argue that it is possible to place language vitality along a continuum, with languages which are vital and in no way endangered (e.g. English, Mandarin, and Spanish) on one end, and extinct languages which have no speakers and have vanished without descendent or daughter languages on the other end.

  • 22 - New roles for endangered languages

  • from Part IV - Challenges
  • Edited by Peter K. Austin, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Julia Sallabank, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages
    Published online:
    05 June 2012
    Print publication:
    24 March 2011, pp 446-458

  • Summary

    This chapter presents a brief outline of the relationship between data and language documentation. Three kinds of resources have long been given a special place in descriptive linguistics: texts, dictionaries and grammars. It has become standard practice for linguists documenting under-resourced languages to consider ways in which their work can result in outputs not only for use in academic spheres, but also community ones. The chapter explores the notion of an underlying data structure and introduces general aspects of the problem of encoding that structure in machine-readable format. It covers specific issues relating to the encoding of language data on a computer. Most of the documentary objects requiring metadata can be arranged in a hierarchy from more general to more specific using the categories project, corpus, session and resource. The chapter concludes with a discussion of linguist's responsibilities for navigating the relationship between their data and new technologies.

  • 18 - Language curriculum design and evaluation forendangered languages

  • from Part III - Responses
  • Edited by Peter K. Austin, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Julia Sallabank, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages
    Published online:
    05 June 2012
    Print publication:
    24 March 2011, pp 354-370

  • Summary

    This chapter contextualizes the notion of endangered languages in a model of language and society. For sociolinguists, language loss, except as a result of extinction of speakers by natural disaster or mass murder, is an extreme case of a normal ongoing phenomenon, language shift. The fact or belief that the language is appropriately used at a higher level may encourage the belief that it should be used at a lower level. Religion has a major influence on language shift and maintenance both because of the values it assigns to a variety and also as a result of the active management involved in the establishment of an educational system. Education, particularly under the control of national states, has become one of the main forces for language shift and one of the main causes of endangerment of minority-language varieties.

  • 9 - Language documentation

  • from Part II - Language documentation
  • Edited by Peter K. Austin, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Julia Sallabank, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages
    Published online:
    05 June 2012
    Print publication:
    24 March 2011, pp 159-186

  • Summary

    The spread of writing to vernacular languages, along with ideologies of language standardization and practices of manuscript curation, constituted language documentation on an enormous scale over a millennial time frame. This chapter considers how a broad, inclusive idea of endangered-language documentation might be framed in order best to realize its potential, avoid pitfalls, and meet its challenges. It also considers the context and development of endangered-language documentation in academic research. But the stakeholders in documentation include the communities in which endangered languages are spoken. The chapter focuses mainly on documentation and community stakeholders and has little to say of wider publics except as they may form part of the community context of endangered-language documentation. Linguists must be flexible and inventive about how and when to accomplish traditional linguistic agendas, and training takes centre stage as projects involve many people, with different expertise, roles and levels of training.

  • 15 - Revitalization of endangered languages

  • from Part III - Responses
  • Edited by Peter K. Austin, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Julia Sallabank, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages
    Published online:
    05 June 2012
    Print publication:
    24 March 2011, pp 291-311

  • Summary

    This chapter presents some outcomes of language contact, and linguistic and social-psychological mechanisms operating in contact situations. It discusses notions of how contact-induced change is perceived by speaker communities and others, and the question of whether contact-induced change is inevitable. The chapter explains that new languages arising from contact might also be endangered and should be documented as valuable records of sociolinguistic processes. When languages come into contact and speakers of one language are learning another, a change in language use has already taken place. The prestige of a language may be viewed differently by different groups within the community; for example, younger versus older speakers, so use of a language or linguistic form may be evaluated differently among within-community groups. Speakers may be aware that their language is endangered but not aware of or confident about their own role in its maintenance.

  • 13 - Digital archiving

  • from Part II - Language documentation
  • Edited by Peter K. Austin, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Julia Sallabank, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages
    Published online:
    05 June 2012
    Print publication:
    24 March 2011, pp 255-274

  • Summary

    This chapter addresses the issue of what makes endangered language speakers different, and why it should matter to be aware of the great diversity when working on the description, documentation or revitalization of endangered languages. The nature of endangered language communities is addressed by considering them through the lens of their geographic locations and configurations. It is considered from the perspective of different concepts of language and speech communities, in order to show how both concepts are intricately intertwined in endangered language communities. The issue of language endangerment in communities is approached from the perspective of the evolution of their level of consciousness and their evolving attitudes, in the context of recently developed discourse about the preservation of worldwide biocultural diversity. Linguists working on endangered languages often find themselves in challenging field situations that their academic training has done little to prepare them for.

  • 1 - Introduction

  • Edited by Peter K. Austin, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Julia Sallabank, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages
    Published online:
    05 June 2012
    Print publication:
    24 March 2011, pp 1-24

  • Summary

    Language shift can take place rapidly, over a generation or two, or it can take place gradually, but continuously, over several generations. Linguists are becoming increasingly alarmed at the rate at which languages are going out of use. Overviews of the study of language endangerment usually start with a list of statistics about the number of languages in the world, the proportion considered endangered, and so on. Politics also plays an important part in language differentiation. Following nineteenth-century philosophers such as Herder, language has been considered a crucial element of national identity, with 'one state, one people, one language' being seen as the ideal. But languages do not necessarily follow political boundaries. The causes of language endangerment can be divided into four main categories such as: natural catastrophes, famine, disease; war and genocide; overt repression; and cultural/political/economic dominance.

  • 3 - Speakers and communities

  • from Part 1 - Endangered languages
  • Edited by Peter K. Austin, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Julia Sallabank, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages
    Published online:
    05 June 2012
    Print publication:
    24 March 2011, pp 45-65

  • Summary

    This chapter addresses the issue of what makes endangered language speakers different, and why it should matter to be aware of the great diversity when working on the description, documentation or revitalization of endangered languages. The nature of endangered language communities is addressed by considering them through the lens of their geographic locations and configurations. It is considered from the perspective of different concepts of language and speech communities, in order to show how both concepts are intricately intertwined in endangered language communities. The issue of language endangerment in communities is approached from the perspective of the evolution of their level of consciousness and their evolving attitudes, in the context of recently developed discourse about the preservation of worldwide biocultural diversity. Linguists working on endangered languages often find themselves in challenging field situations that their academic training has done little to prepare them for.

  • 8 - Language and society

  • from Part 1 - Endangered languages
  • Edited by Peter K. Austin, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Julia Sallabank, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages
    Published online:
    05 June 2012
    Print publication:
    24 March 2011, pp 141-156

  • Summary

    This chapter contextualizes the notion of endangered languages in a model of language and society. For sociolinguists, language loss, except as a result of extinction of speakers by natural disaster or mass murder, is an extreme case of a normal ongoing phenomenon, language shift. The fact or belief that the language is appropriately used at a higher level may encourage the belief that it should be used at a lower level. Religion has a major influence on language shift and maintenance both because of the values it assigns to a variety and also as a result of the active management involved in the establishment of an educational system. Education, particularly under the control of national states, has become one of the main forces for language shift and one of the main causes of endangerment of minority-language varieties.

  • References

  • Edited by Peter K. Austin, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Julia Sallabank, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
  • Book:
    The Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages
    Published online:
    05 June 2012
    Print publication:
    24 March 2011, pp 483-553

  • Summary

    This chapter deals with digital archives and digital archiving of language materials, especially materials from endangered languages. Archives have traditionally made decisions about which materials they accept for deposit, based on their collection policy. Standards are important for the effective operation of digital archives. Standards are promoted in pursuit of three goals: quality, interoperability and the integrity of the archive's collections. Digital archives have to take account of many factors to ensure long-term preservation, from the broader political, organizational and financial issues that guarantee their sustainable operations, to budget and equipment planning, to technical details of scheduling automated tape backups. In an emerging field such as documentation of endangered languages, archives can draw on digital technologies and standards developed over the last forty years, but they have to provide discipline-specific facilities to meet the needs of their users.

Page 554 of 608