This chapter concludes the book, which examines why Islamist civil wars are especially resistant to resolution and explores pathways toward their end. It draws out conclusions based on the quantitative analyses as well as the case studies of Afghanistan, Mauritania, Mali, and Syria, showing how conflicts framed in Islamist terms can become strategically embedded within transnational networks, increasing uncertainty about actors’ strength and resolve, thereby adding to their intractability. Importantly, Islamist civil wars are not inherently unresolvable; rather, their persistence stems from external entanglements. Insulating conflicts is key to their resolution. Endings of Islamist conflicts may come with setbacks for women’s rights and minority protections, underscoring the need for third parties to mitigate this. The chapter discusses how our book bridges the conflict resolution literature and strategic studies, emphasizing the role of transnational dynamics over ideology alone. It concludes with policy implications: prioritize localization and discourage external entanglement to create openings for conflict resolution in Islamist civil wars.

This chapter examines the placing of COVID-19 grief through ethnographic vignettes from three distinct contexts: the prolonged search by one woman in Guayaquil, Ecuador, to find and bury her mother’s body; the ritualized micro-eulogies and use of public health data that characterized Kentucky’s state response to the pandemic; and the community efforts to create a national commemorative space in Washington, DC, for lives lost to COVID in the absence of state recognition. Drawing on philosopher Emmanuel Levinas’s notion of the ethical imperative to care for the deceased, we show how individual acts of mourning – what we call “micro-eulogies” – confront the silences and erasures surrounding COVID-19 death. These quotidian practices of naming, honoring, and remembering the dead emerge alongside and against narratives of revisionism and calls to “move on.” In attending to the specificity of these three places – geographic, sociopolitical, symbolic – and the movement of individual and collective grief between the private and the public, the chapter explores what it means for the experience of COVID-19 loss to be located. It argues that localizing pandemic grief is an act of refusal, one that demands a collective reckoning and response.

As business transactions and the global economy become increasingly digitalized, international investment disputes will deal with novel assets in new boundary-defiant contexts. Indeed, jurisdictional arguments and objections will likely require arbitral tribunals to confront with the uneasy task of delineating the ‘localization’ of investments in digital economy assets such as cryptocurrency, non-fungible tokens, and data-related investments. However, given that even more traditional assets have raised a variety of problems relating to territorial nexus and localization, the authors believe that the digital economy emphasizes what are essentially differences in degree rather than in kind. This chapter discusses the complexities that arise in considering the idiosyncrasies of investments in digital economy assets within a traditional territorially defined jurisdictional framework. First, the authors present some of those new digital economy assets and canvass several typical cross-border challenges inherent in international investment arbitration. Second, they question how traditional objections to jurisdiction ratione personae and jurisdiction ratione materiae might be employed when the investments in question relate to those digital developments. Third, the chapter raises questions about states’ jurisdiction to prescribe, and ponders the potential effects for purposes of jurisdiction of states asserting their authority to prescribe over investments or investors outside their territory.

When IPE textbooks discuss the pre-1945 roots of the field, they usually focus only on the ideas of European and American thinkers who helped to pioneer the three distinct perspectives of economic liberalism, neomercantilism, and Marxism. But the pre-1945 intellectual history of IPE can be told in a more global manner that reveals many important intellectual contributions made by thinkers from elsewhere. These contributions can be divided into four broad types: (1) those that “localized” the three well-studied European and American perspectives in creative ways; (2) those that endogenously developed similar perspectives as those three Euro-American ones; (3) those that developed quite different perspectives; and (4) those that influenced Euro-American thought about the world economy. This chapter provides examples of each of these types in order to contribute to the building of a kind of big picture analysis that not only deepens IPE’s intellectual roots temporally into the pre-1945 period but also widens those deep roots spatially to promote a more global understanding of them. This more global understanding helps to provide a more comprehensive history of IPE thought and to build the historical foundation for a more “Global IPE” today.

This chapter addresses the study of the geographical aspects of English linguistic variation in England, from the beginnings to the sixteenth century. The major challenge in the study of early periods of English is the scarcity of sources, which are often not easy to localise. Only in the fifteenth century does the production of administrative materials in English, in a highly variable writing system, allow for a systematic study of geographical variation covering the entire country; for earlier periods materials are much scantier, and many studies have therefore made use of reconstructive methods. This chapter discusses and problematises the different approaches used by earlier scholars; finally, using the newly compiled Corpus of Middle English Local Documents (MELD), it addresses the possibilities of studying early geographical variation directly, with focus on individual items, rather than through the reconstruction of dialect areas or continua.

Globalization has become a profound and transformative force in modern societies. Increasing connectivity has disrupted traditional sociocultural ways of life while new cultural influences suggest new ways of living. The neoliberal underpinnings of globalization have exacerbated inequality and prioritized profit-seeking over environmental concerns. Accordingly, the negative consequences of globalization have challenged central human needs such as local embeddedness, contextual predictability, justice, security, and sense of safety. As a result, the overarching processes of globalization have given rise to perceptions of threats in different locations, triggering extreme psychological reactions that may manifest through violent means. Thus, violent extremism rooted in globalization emerges in response to increased feelings of uncertainty, insignificance, and injustice driven by accelerating connectivity. Whereas the manifestations of globalization-based violent extremism may vary in different contexts, a key characteristic is mutuality and interconnectedness. Events and ideas resonate across the globe, amplified within online echo chambers, leading to heightened polarization and enclave deliberation. To counteract globalization-based violent extremism, we must foster a sense of stability and belonging and promote tolerance at the local level. Additionally, developing deliberative competencies to navigate the complexities of an increasingly plural and fluid world is crucial in mitigating the challenges posed by contemporary globalized connectivity.

This chapter describes localization using bipolar and referential montages and includes the concepts of active reference and how to select a suitable reference when using referential montages. Localization is the art of locating the site of maximal potential on the cortical surface, presumably the origin of a waveform. This depends on the montage and rules of polarity. Certain regions such as sulcal depths, inferior surfaces, and very small potentials may be surface EEG negative. Bipolar montages use phase reversals and referential montages use maximum amplitude for localization. An apparent phase reversal on a referential montage suggests the possibility of a horizontal dipole or an active reference. Active reference occurs when the reference electrode lies close to the potential focus or becomes contaminated by artifact leading to false localizations. Therefore, it is important to select relatively inert electrodes as reference electrodes when using a referential montage. [145 words/844 characters]

The chapter begins with a discussion of the societal conditions that surround translations, and notes that it is more common for economically secure cultures to translate between one another than it is for poor economies to translate into the languages of other poor economies or into the languages of rich economies. The networks and associations that translators may form are introduced, and an example of a code of conduct of the kind that these may adhere to is provided. The second part of the chapter addresses the issue of whether translated language differs in identifiable ways from non-translated language. A third section addresses different types of translators and their working conditions, and the gatekeeping roles that translators play in terms of what they decide to translate, who they admit to societies that they form, and providing access to other cultures.

The usefulness and richness of 2-polygraphs is confirmed by the large number and variety of categories they present. In order to show that a given polygraph is a presentation of a given category, one can either tackle the issue directly, by using rewriting tools, or take a modular approach, by combining already known presentations: this is the route taken in the present chapter. Three significant applications are given. First addressed is the presentation of limits and colimits by means of given presentations of the base categories, and precisely shown is how to systematically build presentations of products, coproducts, and pushouts. Next, it is shown how to add formal inverses to some morphisms of a category at the level of presentations. Finally, distributive laws are investigated in relation to factorization systems on categories. A notion of composition along a distributive law between two small categories sharing the same set of objects is introduced, and it is shown how to derive a presentation of this composite from presentations of the components.

Neurobiological theories draw on neurobiological evidence from fMRI but also plenty of other neuroscientific methods for theory development: On a fundamental level, neurobiological theories are neurobiological explanations about the nature of the brain-behavior link.

This chapter starts out with a short introduction to the language of nonassociative algebras over commutative rings. It then proceeds to familiarize the reader with two of the most important elementary techniques utilized in this book: scalar extensions (also known as base change) and finitely generated projective modules. Standard properties of involutions and quadratic maps are also recalled before we conclude the chapter with a short introduction into Roby’s theory (1963) of polynomial laws.