Numerous Christian authors from the seventh century to the twenty-first have classified Islam as a Christian heresy. Writers from John of Damascus in the seventh century to Hilaire Belloc in the twentieth have seen Muhammad as a heresiarch who forged a heresy based on elements of Judaism, Christianity and Paganism. Comparison between Muhammad and earlier heresiarchs (such as Arius or Nestorius) allowed Christian authors to denigrate and dismiss Islamic doctrine. Such comparison also facilitated the denunciation of new heretics closer to home: Luther and Calvin, for Catholic polemicists of the sixteenth century, or on the contrary the ‘papists’, for Protestant writers.

This chapter centres on the rural landscapes of the late Roman Eastern Empire, focusing on settlement patterns, economic structures and the integration of rural communities into broader imperial networks. It challenges older historiographical models that depict the countryside as declining in tandem with the urban world, arguing instead that many rural regions remained vibrant and adapted to shifting political and economic conditions. This investigation draws on archaeological surveys, architectural remains and epigraphic evidence to analyse how different rural settlements evolved. It contrasts the village-based economies of the Eastern Mediterranean with the villa-centric model of the western provinces, emphasising that villages in the East continued to thrive well into the Byzantine period. The chapter also highlights the role of religious transformation, documenting the conversion of pagan sanctuaries into Christian sites and the spread of monastic settlements in rural landscapes. Another key theme is connectivity, particularly how infrastructure such as roads and maritime trade routes sustained rural economies. The discussion of transhumance and agricultural production further illustrates the dynamism of the eastern countryside. While certain regions experienced decline due to warfare or shifting imperial priorities, the chapter presents the eastern rural world as an adaptive, resilient environment, rather than one in simple decay.

In Book III of the Plato’s Laws, we are told that under the ancient constitution of Athenian, citizens ‘lived in willing servitude’ to the city’s laws and to its officers (archontes). How are we to understand the servitude (douleia) invoked in this slogan, and what are we to make of the qualification of the servitude as willing (hekontes, ethelontes)? Against those who suggest that Plato here construes willing servitude as a kind of freedom, I argue that the slogan is intended to emphasize the ways in which the ancient Athenians were unfree. Plato uses it to promote, as a political ideal, acceptance of the limitations on freedom that are the inevitable concomitant of political rule.

This chapter explores the urban and architectural evolution of Ravenna in Late Antiquity, focusing on its transformation from a relatively modest Roman settlement into a major political and religious centre. It examines how Ravenna served as the capital of the Western Roman Empire, the Ostrogothic Kingdom and the Byzantine Exarchate of Italy between 400 and 725 CE. The discussion highlights how Ravenna’s geographical setting – a marshy coastal landscape – shaped its urban development and archaeological record. The study assesses the city’s infrastructure, including its walls, aqueducts, palaces and religious buildings, demonstrating how imperial patronage played a decisive role in its growth. The construction of monumental churches such as the Basilica of San Vitale and Sant’Apollinare in Classe is explored as evidence of Ravenna’s rising Christian prominence. The chapter also details the impact of Theoderic’s rule, particularly in the adaptation of Roman architectural traditions for Ostrogothic purposes. Under Byzantine rule, Ravenna became a centre of ecclesiastical power, reflected in continued church-building projects. Despite political upheavals and economic fluctuations, Ravenna remained a dynamic and influential city. The chapter concludes by pointing out the challenges of archaeological research in the area, emphasising how ongoing excavations continue to refine our understanding of Ravenna’s late antique legacy.

Hellenistic queenship was richly represented across the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia from the fourth to second centuries BCE. From luxury portable objects to large-scale monuments, public ceremonies to sacred spaces, extant material and visual culture show us that royal women were central to the articulation of dynastic continuity and legitimacy. Queens were important subjects of representation (that were sometimes objects of contemplation) as well as patrons of art and architecture. The art history of Hellenistic queenship comprises an eclectic array of representational strategies in different settings, across a range of materials and media, from the colossal to the miniature. As such, this volume has explored a variety of different case studies from various regions and kingdoms: Hecatomnid Caria, Lycia, Sparta, Argead Macedon, Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Asia, and Attalid Anatolia.

This chapter examines the evolution of monumental civic architecture in Late Antiquity, exploring how urban spaces and public buildings adapted to shifting political, social and economic conditions. Challenging the traditional ‘decline and fall’ narrative, it argues instead for a process of gradual transformation. While some cities in the Western Empire experienced a decline in public building activity, urban centres in the east continued to flourish, with new constructions and adaptations extending well into the Islamic period. In these cities, public buildings such as basilicas, baths and colonnaded streets were frequently repurposed rather than abandoned. Christianity played a crucial role in this shift, as bishops assumed civic responsibilities and redirected resources towards maintaining and adapting urban infrastructure. As a result, late antique cities remained vibrant, with economic and social life persisting despite structural changes. The chapter also highlights the significance of imperial patronage and contributions from the local elite in sustaining urban architecture. By reassessing civic architecture through archaeological and textual evidence, the study presents a more nuanced perspective – one that emphasises urban resilience and transformation rather than outright decline.

This chapter traces Qiu Jun’s use of Classical ritual texts, legal debates, and historical cases to discuss the political, emotional, and ritual dilemma of filial revenge, the ancient obligation of a child to avenge a parent’s murder. Legal and ritual precedents are given in order to find a balance between the Confucian tenets embodied in the central virtue of filial piety and ensuing ritual obligations, personal feeling, and popular sympathy, with legal sanctions and imperial power, while also elevating filial revenge to a cosmic principle. His chosen texts and commentaries urge leniency and sympathy and for individual filial revenge cases to be considered at the highest level. I argue that there is a palpable unease at the heart of Qiu’s discourses, in that his lifelong attachment to ritual studies and his filial piety complicate his responses as a loyal minister in handling the perennial problem of filial revenge.

This chapter investigates the material culture of saint veneration in Late Antiquity, detailing how objects, architecture and inscriptions influenced devotional practices. It draws on a range of sources to investigate how saints were honoured and how their presence was made tangible through physical artefacts. The chapter argues that material culture played a crucial role in facilitating interactions between the living and the divine. Saints’ memorials, inscriptions and relics served as focal points for devotion, strengthening communal identity and religious experience. Key examples include the engraved mensa (table) from Khirbet Oum el-Ahdam, which was used for communal feasting in honour of martyrs, and wall paintings from Wadi Sarga, which depict saints in orans postures, underscoring their role as intercessors. The evidence suggests that material artefacts did more than simply commemorate saints – they actively shaped devotional practices and evolved over time to meet the needs of different generations.

This chapter explores the archaeology of late antique Rome, focusing on the city’s transformation between the third and eighth centuries. It examines architectural, epigraphic and material evidence to trace changes in urban infrastructure, social organisation and religious practices. Recent archaeological projects, including excavations at the Crypta Balbi and the imperial fora, have yielded significant insights into the reuse of urban spaces and shifting patterns of habitation. This study challenges earlier narratives that describe late antique Rome as a city in decline, instead presenting it as a dynamic environment where old structures were adapted to new functions. A major emphasis is placed on the integration of Christian and imperial elements in the cityscape. This investigation highlights the construction of monumental churches such as St Peter’s and the Lateran Basilica, which repurposed materials from earlier Roman buildings, reinforcing Christian authority while maintaining connections to imperial traditions. Another important aspect discussed is the evolution of private housing, with evidence indicating a gradual shift from elite domus to smaller, more communal living arrangements. The chapter concludes that late antique Rome was characterised by both continuity and transformation.