Chapter 1, “The Road to Quarks,” traces the period from 1896, with Henri Becquerel’s accidental discovery of radioactivity, to 1935 with Hideki Yukawa’s theory of the nuclear force.

Discoveries of radioactivity by Becquerel; the nucleus by Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, as interpreted by Ernest Rutherford; the range of the nuclear force by Rutherford and James Chadwick; and the discovery of the neutron by Chadwick, are briefly described. Concepts from quantum mechanics and quantum field theory necessary to explain Heisenberg’s unsuccessful attempt to understand the nuclear force, and Yukawa’s successful theory of pion exchange, are explained. These include Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, quantum fluctuations of quantum fields, and virtual particles as the carriers of force.

This chapter provides an overview of manuscript production and reception in the OE and ME periods. It focuses on how manuscripts were produced, the cognitive copying practices of its scribes, the subsequent use of manuscript texts by their readers, and the implications these issues have for the texts and data that survive. It considers the methodological issues arising from working on manuscripts in both their physical and edited forms. The chapter argues for the importance of considering manuscript evidence – including material aspects of the text – when using such texts as data for linguistic enquiry, and the value of this overlooked material for increasing our understanding of diachronic change. Finally, the chapter highlights and demonstrates some fruitful approaches to medieval textual material from the disciplines of historical sociolinguistics, dialectology, pragmatics and philology.

This chapter develops and analyzes how thought experiments connect thinking with actuality. Superficially, imaginary constructions are mere possibilities that diverge from actuality. However, Kierkegaard also characterizes thought experiments as a kind of experience, providing concrete, fulfilling content for an otherwise empty concept – that is, providing what Kant calls a “synthesis” between thought and experience. Two Ages shows how the work of synthesis can begin from observations and move toward understanding or from understanding toward fulfillment in experience. In Works of Love, I propose, we find material for a basic taxonomy of thought experiments that distinguishes them by whether the thought experiment offers cognition of (a) objects or (b) concepts and whether it (a) proceeds from existing concepts or (b) guides the reader in gaining new ones. This taxonomy mirrors Kant’s distinctions between constitutive and regulative concepts and determining and reflecting judgments. It also anticipates the proposals of recent rationalist accounts of intuition that thought experiments provide nonsensory presentations.

The societal liberalization of the decade that culminated in the Prague Spring in 1968 was evident early on in a wave of new small-scale theater companies. One notable example is the Semafor Theater, founded in 1959 by Jiří Suchý and Jiří Šlitr. The main model for these ensembles, especially for Semafor, was the Osvobozené divadlo (the Liberated Theater) of the interwar period (1926–38). The Liberated Theater earned a legendary reputation, thanks in part to the comedy duo Jiří Voskovec and Jan Werich. Equally legendary was the music of the nearly blind in-house composer and bandleader of the Liberated Theater, Jaroslav Ježek (1906–42). This chapter begins by exploring the place of the Liberated Theater and its music in Czech theater culture and concludes by highlighting the continuities with the Semafor Theater.

This chapter traces the history of the UK Human Rights Act 1998, from its inspiration in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, through the adoption of the European Convention on Human Rights in 1950, the cases lost by the United Kingdom after the acceptance of the individual right to petition the European Court of Human Rights in 1966, the movement to ‘bring rights home’ which culminated in the 1998 Act, the attacks on the Act by media and politicians, and the ill-fated Bill of Rights Bill to replace it, culminating in 2023 with the insidious disapplication of the Act in the particular context of migration and asylum and a new willingness of the government to promote legislation which is incompatible with the Convention rights, coupled with renewed calls in some quarters for the United Kingdom to withdraw from the Convention.

Grammaticalisation is the gradual historical process through which English, like all languages, generates its grammatical material. It is underpinned by separate yet interconnected mechanisms of language change which result in the continuous formal and functional modification of lexical items in specific constructions and contexts. Its ultimate origin has been identified as metaphorical extension and as context-induced reinterpretation, but fundamentally lies in the approximate and inferential nature of linguistic communication. These processes and motivations are explored here through a number of case studies from the history of English, focusing in particular on the emergence of various tense markers, quantifiers and complex prepositions.

Origen’s examination of Jesus’s baptism in Against Celsus offers readers a particularly secure first footing for apprehending his sense of the Gospel narratives’ “mixed” character. That Jesus was baptized by John is hardly problematic, historically speaking. But the events narrated to have taken place directly after the baptism presented no less difficulty for readers in antiquity than they do for readers today. Origen preserves Celsus’s dismissal of the descent of the dove and voice from heaven as an obvious fiction. Origen, however, resists the judgment. Why? His reply to Celsus puts the whole complex of first principles detailed in Part I to work. According to Origen’s view, one can receive the narrative to be “true” inasmuch as it depicts, in figurative language drawn from prophetic literary tropes, Jesus’s own interior inspiration at the commencement of his public ministry. In short, the story narrates something real, something “historical” even, precisely insofar as it is entirely spiritual. The Evangelists then came to share in the same kind of vision Jesus is said to have had at his baptism and narrated “in figures” what they, too, had “perceived in their own understanding.”

This chapter explores the ways folksong research in the Czech lands emerged both within and alongside race and ethnicity studies during the first half of the twentieth century. Many scholars have thoughtfully examined interrelationships between folksong research and German nationalism, specimen culture, and Darwinian assumptions, and yet these same interrelationships in Czech music studies have only recently begun to emerge. Anthropologists, too, have brought into focus the political roles of ethnographic studies in defining the Czech and Slovak nations, but the specific role of folksong research within this remains unstudied. Examining the ways music research in the Czech lands participated alongside and sometimes overlapped with German nationalist race and ethnicity research, however, illuminates early Czech folk-music studies as an instrument of ethnonationalism; a tool not merely descriptive of a repertoire, but also delineative of who belonged and who did not.

This article re-examines the affective affordances of William Shakespeare’s 2 Henry VI, arguing that the garden scene did not necessarily lead spectators towards a specific conclusion on the issue of dearth. Instead, audiences were enabled to consider what constitutes justice through their collective emotional experience as an affective community.

Beer was a staple food in the Middle Ages and was brewed by monks. Over the centuries, an entire culture has developed in Germany around beer brewing, beer drinking, and the commercial serving of beer. This is also reflected in the diversity of beer types with 25 different beer styles and between 5,000 and 6,000 different types of beer in Germany alone. Moreover, special ‘beer gardens’ are popular places of consumption. The German Purity Laws date back to 1156 and were only lifted by the CJEU for imports.

This chapter provides insights from economic theory and empirical methods to determine if production of medical services in a firm is efficient. The concepts of a production function can indicate whether production is technically efficient and estimate the marginal contribution to revenue of each input (labor of different types, capital, etc.). With data on the prices or wages of these inputs, the manager can determine the profit-maximizing rate of use. A cost function can indicate whether there are economies of scale in quantity (somehow defined) and economies or diseconomies in scope. Examples from classic health economics literature are used to show that there was underuse of physician aides and other substitutes in office-based physician practices, that there are constant returns in scale in the production of hospital admissions, and that there are increased returns in emergency rooms. Caution in interpretation of variation in cost per unit output (of the type provided for Medicare in the Dartmouth Atlas) is offered.

This chapter introduces the problem of theorizing international organizations. It breaks down the problem to two parts: the structural relationship between international organizations and their members and conceptual relationship between these institutions and other entities in international law, including states and non-state actors. The first relationship concerns whether international organizations should be analyzed as legally distinct from their members. The second relationship relates to international organizations’ rights, obligations, and capacities in international law, assuming that they are legally distinguishable from their members. The chapter concludes by clarifying how advancing a doctrinal legal theory is understood by this book, as well as the methodology that will be employed in that regard.