This chapter explores the architectural evolution of monastic settlements, tracing their development from their early beginnings in Late Antiquity to their eventual institutionalisation within the Christian Church. It examines the diverse forms of monastic architecture, ranging from isolated hermitic dwellings to large coenobitic monasteries, and the various factors that influenced their design. Providing a broad perspective on monastic life across regions such as Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Sinai, Nubia and Western Europe, the chapter argues that monastic architecture evolved in response to practical, spiritual and defensive needs. It highlights how early anchorites lived in secluded hermitages, often repurposing tombs and quarries, while later monastic communities adopted structured compounds featuring churches, refectories and defensive towers. Regional adaptations also played a key role, with fortified monasteries in Sinai, laurae and coenobia in Palestine, and the impact of pilgrimage shaping settlement patterns. Ultimately, the chapter demonstrates how monasteries functioned as economic centres, pilgrimage hubs and defensive structures. It also underscores how archaeological evidence challenges traditional textual narratives, revealing a more complex and pragmatic monastic lifestyle than literary sources often suggest.

Chapter 3 on Attribution Science delves deeper into the science that establishes causal links between climate change, specific sources of emissions, and its impacts. The authors illustrate how these scientific developments are enhancing our ability to pinpoint the causes of climate impacts, an evolution crucial to a range of procedural and substantive issues that may arise in climate litigation. The authors also delve into specific regional impacts and showcase how attribution science has illuminated the ways in which different parts of the world are experiencing and responding to the unique challenges posed by a changing climate. This includes case studies in Africa, the Americas, Europe, the South Pacific, and Asia. The authors conclude by addressing the limitations and challenges in the field of attribution science before explaining how it is nevertheless poised to play an ever-more critical role in our collective response to climate change.

Rousseau took up the challenge of explaining the origin of social inequality. Primitive humans lived simply and independently. Their natural amour de soi – self-love – was tempered by natural pity. As families connected into tribes, and nomads settled into stationary dwellings, a new sentiment arose: amour propre, or self-esteem. People began to compare themselves to one another and to seek attention. Natural pity was eclipsed by the urge to be admired and to dominate. The introduction of agriculture brought with it private property and competitive accumulation. Human society magnified modest natural inequalities, and immiserated itself in the process. Rousseau’s thought showed a sunnier side in his Du Contrat Sociale: the social contract. He professed not to know how humanity had come to be “everywhere” in chains, but proceeded to show how that condition was legitimate. The device was the social contract, to which individuals bring their possessions in order to secure them as property.

This chapter explores late antique portraiture, centring on its stylistic evolution, its cultural significance and shifting scholarly interpretations. It examines a diverse range of materials, including sculptural portraits, reliefs, mosaics and coins, alongside historical texts that shed light on how portraiture was perceived and utilised during this period. The chapter traces the transition from the naturalistic imperial portraiture of the Roman era to the more stylised and symbolic depictions of the Late Antique and Byzantine periods. It analyses how portraiture evolved from realistic likenesses to abstract, hierarchical representations, particularly as a response to Christianity’s growing influence and the changing political landscape, and argues that late antique portraits should be viewed not as signs of artistic decline but rather as part of a broader transformation in both artistic and ideological expression. The chapter concludes that portraiture in Late Antiquity was not merely about depicting individuals; it played essential political, religious and social roles, reinforcing imperial authority and Christian ideals.

This chapter examines the transition of pagan architecture and religious practices in Late Antiquity, focusing on the treatment of Roman temples under Christian emperors. Drawing on legal texts, literature, inscriptions and archaeological findings, it evaluates whether temples were preserved, repurposed or destroyed. Challenging the common assumption of widespread temple destruction, it argues that such actions were neither systematic nor state-enforced. Instead, the chapter presents a nuanced perspective, demonstrating that many temples remained intact and were gradually adapted for secular or Christian purposes. Archaeological evidence suggests that abandonment and natural decay played a greater role in their decline than deliberate demolition. It also highlights how Christian emperors often sought to suppress pagan rituals while preserving architectural heritage, with legal measures typically prohibiting sacrifices rather than mandating temple destruction. By emphasising regional variations in temple transformations and critically assessing sources that exaggerate instances of destruction, the chapter challenges traditional narratives, offering a more complex understanding of religious and architectural change in Late Antiquity.

In a bustling neighbourhood in a bylane off the Western Express Highway in Mumbai, a small room houses the women's sharia adalat (alternative dispute resolution forum) of the BMMA. The women's sharia court, as it is popularly known, is presided over only by activists of the BMMA who have been trained as qazi who resolve marital disputes. In the adjudication of cases, the qazi heard both the sides when a couple approached the court for resolving a matrimonial dispute. She often advised both men and women to demonstrate compassion (raham) in their everyday interactions even at the point of breakdown of a marriage. Suraiya Shaikh, a female qazi, conducted training sessions on Muslim family law on marriage, divorce and maintenance for women of the neighbourhood. In her training sessions, she often emphasised the spiritual equality of men and women and how they were equally obligated to lead a life of piety. Shaikh would invoke this notion of equality to critique social and legal inequality between men and women.

In this chapter, I analyse the concept of gender equality as it is constituted by activists and adjudicators of the BMMA. In doing so, I delineate how notions of ethics are brought to bear on the concept of gender equality. While the previous chapter showed how the right to religious freedom is constituted in ethical ways using the language of duty by activists while they navigate the framework of minority rights and Muslim family law, this chapter focuses on the concept of gender equality. In debates on multiculturalism, gender equality has been a bone of contention. Liberal feminists have often been preoccupied with the question of balancing gender equality with the cultural and religious rights of minority communities. Theorists working within a liberal multiculturalist paradigm dwell upon the state regulation of minority cultural, ethnic and religious practices for the attainment of normative goods such as freedom, autonomy and gender equality. There is, on the one hand, Okin's rather crude characterisation of cultures that are ‘religious ones and those that look to the past – to ancient texts of revered traditions’ – as discriminating against women. Okin's work suffers from a careless characterisation of cultures and religions.

This chapter explores the development of funerary archaeology in Late Antiquity, examining how burial practices evolved and how they have been interpreted over time. It argues that these practices were far more complex than previously assumed, shaped by a range of factors including religious beliefs, social status and local traditions. The chapter challenges earlier assumptions that grave goods were exclusively linked to pagan burials, demonstrating that Christians also placed objects in graves. It also examines the influence of nationalism and antiquarianism on the interpretation of burial sites, particularly in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. One of its key conclusions is that burial practices varied significantly and cannot be neatly categorised along religious or ethnic lines. Additionally, cemeteries served not only as places of interment but also as spaces for reinforcing social identity, political claims and communal memory. By integrating modern archaeological techniques with historical analysis, the chapter offers a more nuanced understanding of late antique funerary customs, moving beyond simplistic narratives of religious transformation.

This chapter examines the relationship between the Roman Empire and northern European ‘barbarian’ societies from the fourth to the mid seventh century, challenging the view that they were entirely separate. Instead, it argues that these regions remained deeply interconnected with Rome, even after the empire’s collapse. The discussion draws on archaeological evidence – settlements, burial customs and trade patterns – alongside historical sources like Gregory of Tours and Tacitus. Findings reveal growing Roman cultural influence in barbarian lands, reflected in changing burial rites, settlement structures and material culture. Roman imports in Germanic territories and diplomatic payments to frontier leaders further highlight this integration. The chapter contends that Rome’s fall was not a sudden rupture but a gradual transformation that reshaped northern Europe’s political landscape. The rise of new confederacies, including the Franks, Alamanni and Saxons, underscores this shift. Additionally, the chapter explores the spread of Christianity and its role in shaping post-Roman societies. Rather than viewing ‘barbarian migrations’ as simple population movements, the study emphasises a complex interplay of Roman policies, local power struggles and cultural evolution. A key takeaway is that Northern Europe’s integration into the post-Roman world was a fluid process, in which continuity and change coexisted.

Chapter 6 on Separation of Powers offers a comprehensive exploration of how the balance of power between the judiciary and other branches of government plays out in climate litigation. The authors critically analyse key cases where these doctrines have been invoked, shedding light on how these doctrines shape the courts’ approach to climate cases. They underscore the significant variation in how this issue is dealt with across jurisdictions, acknowledging the diversity of constitutional and legal frameworks globally. Despite this diversity, the authors distil an emerging best practice where courts are increasingly recognising their crucial role in safeguarding fundamental rights and constitutional values in the context of climate change. This recognition is not a one-directional or universal trend but a nuanced evolution detectable across various jurisdictions and legal systems.

The chapter examines the changing urban landscape of the western Roman Empire and its successor states from approximately 300 to 600. It explores how cities evolved in response to shifting political, economic and social conditions, analysing archaeological evidence and urban-planning trends. The chapter begins with an overview of recent developments in the field and outlines the diverse trajectories of urban centres across the region. Of central importance is the gradual transition from classical urbanism to post-classical forms, marked by the loss and reuse of monumental structures, the fortification of cities and the adaptation of existing infrastructure. Rather than depicting urban change as a straightforward decline, the chapter argues that cities underwent complex transformations, with some centres experiencing contraction while others remained vibrant. It also illustrates how elite participation, religious shifts and administrative restructuring influenced the built environment. Furthermore, attention is given to the role of city walls, which were expanded or reinforced to accommodate new defensive needs. The reuse of materials, including spolia, became a defining feature of late antique architecture. By integrating textual and material evidence, the chapter provides a nuanced perspective on how cities adapted to the challenges of Late Antiquity, maintaining their significance despite profound structural changes.

This overview discusses the development of the catacombs of Rome, focusing on their architectural evolution and their role in Christian burial practices. Tracing the transformation of subterranean cemeteries from the late second to the fourth century, it argues that the catacombs were distinct from contemporary pagan hypogea. Unlike their pagan counterparts, Christian catacombs featured vast networks of interconnected tunnels, a structured layout designed for expansion, and an intensive use of subterranean space. A defining characteristic of these burial sites was the deliberate placement of tombs near those of martyrs, which in turn became focal points for pilgrimage and veneration. The Callixtus catacomb exemplifies this trend, as it was developed with carefully planned access points and designated areas for noble burials. The chapter also challenges earlier assumptions that pagans continued to use catacombs extensively after the legalisation of Christianity. Instead, it argues that these spaces became increasingly exclusive to Christian communities, serving as both burial grounds and sacred spaces that reinforced communal identity and the cult of the martyrs.