Russia is one of the main oil and gas producers and one of the biggest emitters of carbon dioxide globally. Its energy policies are still underpinned by the necessity of establishing ‘spheres of influence’ and are not on track to achieve the objectives of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement. Politically, war in Ukraine is arguably a consequence of this approach and discloses for the European Union (EU) the possibility of a diversification of its energy sources to achieve security of supply, which unlocks the opportunity of accelerating the green transition envisaged in the European Green Deal. Legally, given that they are not at war with Russia, the EU and its Member States could invoke the energy supply crisis and the political misalignment between the Russian energy policy and the Green Deal, rather than war per se, as a justification to abandon consolidated long-term energy contracts and accelerate the green transition.

This last chapter of the book focuses on the Archean and Proterozoic part of the Earth’s history, bridging the rapidly changing processes of early Earth with modern plate tectonics as dealt with in Chapters 1-14. It discusses the common Archean (4-2.5 billion years) granite and greenstone terranes and how they may reflect specific tectonic conditions associated with gravitational instabilities and tectonic accretion. Although different from today’s subduction-related accretion systems, these tectonic processes allowed for crustal accretion and amalgamation into (super)cratons. Proterozoic (2.5-0.54 billion years) terranes are widespread as accretionary complexes between or along Archean cratons. The chapter discusses how Paleomagnetic techniques and stratigraphic correlations constrain continental drift throughout the Proterozoic, and how their paths define cycles of supercontinent assembly, tenure, and dispersal. Evidence of modern plate tectonics are also discussed, and a lot of Proterozoic geology seems to be linked to plate tectonics, even though high-pressure rocks (eclogite, blueschist) are rare. It is concluded that the age and mechanism of onset of plate tectonics remains a controversial and fascinating topic that will continue to evolve into the future.

The theme of how life and its environment have coevolved together for about four billion years on Earth is explored in this chapter. The major evolutionary events that unfolded in the Archean eon (4 to 2.5 billion years ago), Proterozoic eon (2.5 to 0.539 billion years ago), and the Phanerozoic eon (0.539 billion years ago to present) are outlined, such as the origin(s) of multicellularity, eukaryotes, complex multicellular organisms, and humans. By drawing on this evolutionary timeline, theoretical paradigms for understanding and grouping the notable evolutionary events are sketched (e.g., major transitions in evolution). The next part of the chapter illustrates the intricate interplay between life and its environment by chronicling the rise in molecular oxygen levels, its possible causes and profound consequences, and its potential connections with key geological changes like the putative Snowball Earth episodes. Lastly, the ‘Big Five’ mass extinctions that transpired in the Phanerozoic, along with their triggers and ramifications, are described.

Life-as-we-know-it harnesses carbon for the scaffolding in biomolecules and liquid water as the solvent. This chapter delineates the beneficial properties of carbon and water, and then investigates whether viable alternatives to this duo exist (i.e., ‘exotic’ life). With regard to the latter, the likes of ammonia, sulfuric acid, and liquid hydrocarbons are expected to have some physical and/or chemical advantages relative to water, while also exhibiting certain downsides. In contrast, it is suggested that few options appear feasible aside from carbon, with silicon representing a partial exception. The chapter subsequently delves into the habitability of the clouds of Venus and the lakes of Titan, because the alternative solvents sulfuric acid and liquid hydrocarbons (methane and ethane) are, respectively, documented therein. Both these environments might be conducive to hosting exotic life, but it is cautioned that they are likely subjected to severe challenges.

This chapter deals with the strike-slip fault zones that systematically offset midocean spreading ridges such as the mid-Atlantic ridge. Transform faults are one of three types of plate boundaries and are the active part connecting spreading ridge segments. The chapter investigates these in terms of size, distribution, dynamics, kinematics and seismicity. It looks at how transform faults relate and contrast to their mostly inactive extensions called fracture zones. Fracture zones can typically be traced across the ocean and record information about spreading direction and relative plate motions through geologic time. The chapter also discusses the origin of transform faults and how they provide a link to the mantle and their role as vertical conduits in terms of fluid flow between the mantle and the ocean floor. Several examples are shown where structural and seismic details are shown. This chapter also discusses complications caused by changes in opening direction, creating both transpressional and transtensional deformation along transform faults, and over time, curved fracture zones.

While most sovereign entities have committed to greening their economies and investment under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), several of them are also bound by obligations contracted under the Energy Charter Treaty (ECT), which protects investors in renewables and fossil fuel alike. Arguably, such a situation triggers a ‘regulatory clash’ that has the potential to impede the implementation of net zero carbon policies, such as the European Green Deal. This contribution contextualises the ECT within the framework of the UNFCCC and scopes the potential conflict between such regulatory regimes. Particularly, in light of the so-called ‘sunset’ clause, the contribution concludes that a suitable avenue to resolve the clash is establishing a preferential track for investment in clean energy under the ECT. On this basis, fundamental solutions are envisaged for greening investment, by applying model de lege ferenda proposals for a substantive and procedural modernisation of the ECT.

The impact of the 1pN gravitomagnetic Lense–Thirring acceleration, generalized also to the case of two massive spinning bodies of comparable masses and angular momenta, is calculated for different types of observation-related quantities (Keplerian orbital elements, anomalistic, draconitic, and sidereal orbital periods, two-body range and range rate, radial velocity curve and radial velocity semiamplitude of spectroscopic binaries, astrometric angles RA and dec., times of arrival of binary pulsars, characteristic timescales of transiting exoplanets, and their sky-projected spin-orbit angle). The results are applied to a test particle orbiting a primary, a Sun–Jupiter exoplanet system, and an S star in Sgr A*.

Carbon sequestration has become indispensable to achieving the sustainability objectives set out in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement, within the framework of the concept of ‘net zero’ emissions targets. It includes different prospective techniques, which are nonetheless still in their infancy and not easy to implement. This contribution focuses specifically on carbon sequestration at sea as a test case, aiming to underscore the pros and cons of these measures. It is argued that implementing carbon sequestration at sea requires a cooperative approach, within a context whereby climate change necessitates a synergic rethinking of the Law of the Sea.

The Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) region is a distinct geographic, economic and cultural area with a distinct place in the climate change landscape. Climate policy implementation to meet such Paris Agreement commitments is still incipient, with some of its countries serving as models, some as laggards and the rest positioned somewhere in between. For this reason, partnerships with regions that have advanced more in this area can prove useful. The European Union (EU)–Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC, per the acronym in Spanish) summits and the Euroclima programme are two examples. Due to its high levels of inequality and social unrest, the key challenge to implementing climate policies in LAC will be the strengthening of a political atmosphere where human rights, the rule of law and democratic values prevail.

The People’s Republic of China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) was launched in 2013 and has officially involved 140 countries as of 2021. This paper reviews a total of 11 Chinese policies that can be considered part of the efforts to the ‘greening’ of the Belt and Road. It analyses how, among the wide variety of principles, targets and tasks to ‘green’ the BRI, the connotation of ‘green’ has evolved over time. In particular, priority has transitioned from ecological and environmental protection and pollution control in the early days of the BRI to climate change and conservation of biodiversity since 2020. The chapter shows a progression towards more concrete greening Belt and Road implementation measures, including guidance for key industries, life-cycle management of projects, and stopping building new coal-fired power stations since decarbonisation became a domestic policy priority in 2020.