Official protection of an exploited species sometimes precedes any quantitative understanding of its use, including any dependence of local residents on it for food and livelihood. Conservation initiatives could suffer without this information. The Goliath frog Conraua goliath is iconic globally because of its large size, and is categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. The main threat to this species in Cameroon is overexploitation, but any associated socio-economic aspects of this have not been quantified. We provide insights into local perceptions of the Goliath frog and its consumption through structured interviews with 223 people living alongside this species. The Goliath frog is well known and hunted both for home consumption and the wild meat trade. We trailed seven collaborative Cameroonian Goliath frog hunters over two seasons to determine offtake. A total of 192 Goliath frogs were collected by these hunters, peaking in March. The hunters used nets, shotguns and spears. Their catch was eaten at home or sold fresh within the community or to travellers for XAF 1,500–5,000 (USD 3–10) each. We also studied the Goliath frog trade by examining the databases of the Cameroonian Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife, and CITES. CITES and hunters reported large exports of Goliath frogs but no trade was documented by the Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife. To support conservation planning, this study provides preliminary quantitative information on the extent of the threat of hunting to this Endangered frog.

In response to a declaration in 2004 from a coalition of conservation and animal welfare organizations to ban imports of wild birds into the European Union, we propose that such blanket or indiscriminate bans are unlikely to be effective as a generic conservation approach to the wild bird trade. We further argue that such trade bans, particularly when imposed by Northern constituencies on Southern countries and communities, can act counter to broader values of equity and sustainable development. Here we draw attention to a range of problems and unforeseen consequences of trade bans and highlight the conservation potential of market-led mechanisms that seek to reform trade chains to make them more ethical and sustainable. We contend that it is time for conservation scientists to critically examine the evidence concerning the efficacy of these two strategies as they relate to the trade in wild birds.

As the largest felid in the Americas, the jaguar Panthera onca has both ecological and cultural significance in Bolivia. Yet jaguar populations are declining because of multiple pervasive anthropogenic pressures, including domestic and international demand for their body parts. Since 2013, Bolivia has become a centre of the illegal trade of jaguar body parts, driven by demand from Chinese markets. From 2021, there have been anecdotal reports of jaguar body parts being sold to prisons in north-western Bolivia, where inmates use them to make crafts to be sold at local markets. Here we provide further insights into this illegal wildlife trade activity. Specifically, we show that inmates at Mocovi prison in Trinidad purchase skins of jaguars and other wild animals directly from hunters and from vendors at local markets. Goods (wallets, hats and purses) produced from the skins are sold back to vendors by the inmates to provide income for their daily sustenance. Testimony from an inmate also stated that large bulk orders for wildlife products had been received from a non-Bolivian client base. The San Borja municipality in Beni was indicated as a key location where jaguars are being targeted for their skins to supply the illegal production of wildlife products in Mocovi prison. Further studies are required to determine the extent of this illegal activity in Mocovi prison and other prisons in Bolivia, and in other Latin American countries.

Although wildlife trade has received considerable research and conservation attention, much of it has been focused on charismatic species, with taxa such as fungi receiving little or no attention despite being highly sought after. The caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis is highly valued as an ingredient in cosmetics and medicines, and as an aphrodisiac and dietary supplement. Despite its livelihood and socio-economic significance, it has received little attention in either research or wildlife trade policy. Nevertheless, trade appears to be rampant, and growing online, and this is an emerging conservation challenge. Here we present a systematic survey of online trade in the caterpillar fungus during 2021. During this period, 168 advertisements were recorded on eight e-commerce platforms, both national and international. The grade of the caterpillar fungus advertised for sale fell into six categories. Fungi described as pure/organic/wild grade, which we categorized as authentic grade, had the highest median price (24 USD/g) and those described as medicine/food/cosmetic/beverage, which we categorized as consumption grade, had the lowest median price (0.04 USD/g). The highest advertised sale price was for caterpillar fungus of Bhutan origin (155 USD/g) advertised on the eBay e-commerce platform. Trade in caterpillar fungus on national and international online platforms is evident, and trade in other non-charismatic species is also likely burgeoning online but remains poorly documented. Further systematic surveys of online trade are required, not only to improve understanding of such trade but also to facilitate the development of effective conservation interventions and prevent undocumented overexploitation of important natural resources in developing countries.

Commercial use of wildlife is booming. However, knowledge of trade, price structure and benefit distribution mechanisms remain limited for many endemic, threatened and economically valuable species, impeding efforts to develop conservation intervention schemes in line with sustainable objectives. We illustrate the nature of commercialization of the caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis, collected in a high-altitude Tibetan region. Using the value-chain approach, we document how caterpillar fungus is collected in a remote mountainous region and traded across a wide range of middlemen until it finally reaches high-end markets in urban centres. Mapping the caterpillar fungus value chain helps identify the actors involved and the social institutions (i.e. the rules, norms and arrangements that shape people's behaviours) facilitating access to markets and influencing profit distribution and price structure. We present the complex dynamics of this commercialization process, providing a holistic value-chain analysis that encompasses actors, profits and institutions.

The illegal online trade in wildlife has increased significantly over the last 2 decades. Applying a systematic survey approach, we examined the online trade in elephant ivory before and after the implementation of a domestic trade ban in Singapore, to understand the forms of elephant ivory offered for sale, the e-commerce sites used and the effect of the domestic trade ban. Using elephant ivory and lookalikes in form, shape and colour as proxies for elephant ivory, we found that most of the online listings consisted of bird cages and related accessories such as bird feeding cups and ornaments used to adorn them. After the domestic trade ban in elephant ivory was implemented on 1 September 2021, a 76% drop in total listings was observed. Causal impact analysis indicated a strong causal effect of the domestic trade ban, resulting in an 83% drop in the mean number of new listings found weekly relative to the predicted counterfactual market response based on a Bayesian structural time-series model in the absence of the ban. E-commerce sites play an important role in combatting illegal wildlife trade online by removing flagged listings and sending notifications to raise awareness of the ban. We found textual descriptions of products to be more effective for preliminary differentiation of legal and potentially illegal listings compared to the detection of Schreger lines in images, although this remains a significant challenge for law enforcement. Our findings can inform future efforts to develop automated detection methods for elephant ivory in online markets.

Wildlife markets are hotspots for illegal wildlife trade, with traders operating as a result of weak monitoring and law enforcement. Knowledge of species traded, sources, and routes used for transport is needed to identify illegal wildlife trade markets and intervene to stem trade. We conducted surveys in 13 wildlife markets across Bangladesh every month during January-December 2019 to assess the abundance and diversity of wildlife taxa traded and the factors driving this trade. Passeriformes, Columbiformes, Psittaciformes, Artiodactyla, Carnivora and Testudines were the most traded orders. Wildlife markets were also centres of trade for high-value species, including the tiger Panthera tigris, crocodile Crocodylus porosus and tortoises. In hill markets and peri-urban markets the most commonly sold species originated from nearby forests, whereas urban markets included both native species and exotic species sourced internationally. Market type, road links to the market, the presence of law enforcement agencies, proximity to a port and form of sale (live animals or byproducts) all significantly influenced what is being traded. Trade of mammals, reptiles, high-value wildlife species and threatened species was less common in markets proximal to law enforcement agencies. Markets close to seaports or airports were more likely to sell mammals, threatened species and high-value wildlife. Based on our results, we recommend a set of interventions to help reduce market-based wildlife trade in Bangladesh.

India has an extensive bird trade that provides income and livelihoods for many people but involves considerable unregulated and illegal activity, threatening both native and exotic species and posing potential health risks to people and wildlife. Action to curb illegal trade is vital, but there is currently a lack of information on trade routes and the species involved to inform the development of strategies to address such trade. We therefore examined media reports of bird trade seizures published during 2010–2020 as a cost-effective approach to gaining insights into the composition and structure of the bird trade in India. We collected 182 media reports referring to 109 seizure events by searching for keywords on popular search engines and Indian newspaper websites. We found that 25,850 birds were seized, most frequently members of the family Psittacidae. Of the 58 species identified, 18 were native and 40 non-native to India. The greatest numbers of birds were seized in Uttar Pradesh. Analyses of trade networks indicate that Uttar Pradesh is an important trade hotspot particularly for native species and has strong transnational connections with neighbouring Nepal. We identified West Bengal as an important trade hotspot, particularly for non-native species, probably because of its extensive land borders with neighbouring countries, including Bangladesh. Our study highlights priority areas for interventions as well as key knowledge gaps that need to be addressed to facilitate the development of strategies to manage illegal, unsustainable and otherwise harmful trading of birds.

Despite being protected under the law, illegal trade in tortoises and freshwater turtles is common in India, with different species being trafficked for different markets. Indian species of tortoises and hard-shell turtles are predominantly trafficked for the pet trade and soft-shell turtles for the meat trade. Given their distinct markets, the operation of trade may vary between these different groups of tortoises and freshwater turtles, thereby necessitating different types of interventions. However, a systematic examination of illegal trade in tortoises and freshwater turtles that takes into account the differences between these markets is currently lacking. Here we compare the supply networks of tortoises/hard-shell turtles (in demand for pet trade) vs soft-shell turtles (meat trade), using information from 78 and 64 seizures, respectively, that were reported in the media during 2013–2019. We used social network analysis to compare the two networks and the role of individual nodes (defined as locations at the district or city scale) within these networks. We found that the tortoise/hard-shell turtle network had a larger geographical scale, with more international trafficking links, than the soft-shell turtle network. We recorded convoluted smuggling routes in tortoise/hard-shell turtle trafficking, whereas soft-shell turtle trafficking was uni-directional from source to destination. Within both networks, we found that a few nodes played disproportionately important roles as key exporting, importing or transit nodes. Our study provides insights into the similarities and differences in the illegal supply networks of different groups of tortoises and freshwater turtles, in demand for different markets. We highlight the need for intervention strategies tailored to address the illegal trade in each of these groups.

Data on species trade profiles and volumes of wild animals on sale in local markets can provide useful insights into the bushmeat trade, enabling identification of priorities for management and conservation planning. We monitored bushmeat traded in three markets (Sandema, Chiana and Fumbisi) in the Upper East Region of Ghana during October 2018–October 2019. More than 80% of carcasses sold were amphibians (frogs). Species composition and volumes of bushmeat traded varied significantly across markets. Bushmeat sales were highest during the dry season (75% of total biomass traded). The bulk (60% of total biomass) traded in the local markets was transported long distances for resale in major urban markets in southern Ghana. Large-bodied species were comparatively low in number and sold almost exclusively for resale in southern markets. This study highlights the importance of frog meat as an affordable protein source for consumers and as income for traders in an economically deprived region. Seasonal fluctuations of bushmeat sales demonstrated the importance of bushmeat as part of a diversified livelihood strategy for hunters and traders. Furthermore, this study underscores the significant role that long-distance trade networks play as key drivers of the bushmeat trade in these parts of northern Ghana, and highlights the risks posed by current extraction levels for species conservation in this understudied region. Our recommendations include investigating the potential of sustainable amphibian production, improving protection of particular vulnerable species and of the protected areas in the region and exploring alternative livelihoods during the peak hunting season.

This study characterized the ethnoornithological knowledge of passerine bird keepers, known locally as criadores or passarinheiros, who capture, train, breed and sell wild species in the eastern Amazonia of Brazil. The data were collected from 62 bird keepers through informal, semi-structured interviews and participant observation. The family Thraupidae was the most captured group, with 23 species used, predominantly of the genus Sporophila. Sporophila angolensis had the highest use value and price. Our findings suggest that conservation strategies should be a priority for Sporophila maximiliani, S. angolenses and Saltator maximus. The Passeriformes are obtained by capturing them from the wild, by captive breeding or in trade. They are trapped and sold locally, in nearby municipalities, and also in more distant locations as far as the border with Suriname, French Guiana and Guyana. On the international market, sale prices can reach USD 5,400 per individual bird. Species with both significant economic value and regional cultural significance are of the greatest importance to the bird keepers. To mitigate the negative effects of this activity, we recommend implementation of environmental education programmes for bird keepers, to improve their capacity to raise awareness about wildlife, and to inform them of the legal processes for bird keeping and for breeding birds in captivity for legal trade. Long-term strategies for bird conservation should also be considered, such as the implementation of ecotourism in protected areas to encourage the practice of birdwatching.

Freshwater habitats in China are potentially suitable for invasive alien turtle species and, consequently, raising turtles in aquaculture facilities and the trade in turtles this supplies pose risks to habitats and native wetland communities when exotic turtles escape or are released deliberately. Online trade (e-commerce) is making an increasing contribution to turtle sales in China, seemingly driving demand and thus potentially exacerbating the risk of release. We document the scale and spatial pattern of online sales of non-native turtles over 90 days on China's Taobao.com e-commerce site. The majority of sales were in the ecologically sensitive middle and lower Yangtze river basin (82.35% of > 840,000 slider turtles Trachemys scripta elegans, and 68.26% of > 100,000 snapping turtles, Chelydridae spp.). These species are native to the Americas. Concurrently, over 2008–2018, we found 104 mentions of feral turtle issues listed on Baidu News where, among the 53 prefectures mentioned, issues with invasive turtle populations also focused predominantly in the middle and lower Yangtze river basin. Although circumstantial, this association suggests that the substantial online sale of alien turtles could be having detrimental effects in China's Yangtze river basin. It is important to safeguard these wetland habitats, which are of global importance, by improving policies for detecting and regulating invasive alien turtle issues and by warning consumers about the ecological hazard of their purchases.

Trade in wildlife is increasingly moving online, which creates significant challenges for monitoring. Numerous reports have highlighted the extent of the trade but they rarely present a methodology to facilitate replication or any form of meta-analysis. Here we present a systematic approach to surveying online trade in wildlife that builds on the well-established systematic evidence review approach. We apply this approach to investigate the online trade in saiga antelope Saiga tatarica horns on Russian-language websites. Of the 419 advertisements, the majority (217, 52%) were from Ukraine, followed by Russia (122, 29%), and were largely offers to sell (254, 61%), and represented one-off advertisements. Trade was identified on 89 websites, with the majority being on classified ads websites (68, 76%), auction.violity.com being the most popular site (156, 37%). Prices varied significantly depending on the country and how the horn was being offered (i.e. by weight or length). It is clear that saiga horn is being traded over the internet, with Ukraine and Russia comprising c. 80% of advertisements on Russian-language websites. Individuals with single advertisements dominate, suggesting website fidelity, although website usage is country-specific, potentially reflecting domestic trade. This suggests country-specific interventions could be particularly effective. A systematic approach for investigating online wildlife trade provides a clear and transparent methodology, and, given data collection is resource-intensive, allows studies to be replicated so that trends can be identified. However, this is only possible if published studies report the methodology used.

Mesoamerica is the world's third largest biodiversity hotspot and has c. 4,000 wildlife species protected under CITES. Despite the high biodiversity in the region, there is limited global attention, data and funding for conservation. The continued exploitation of wildlife species for the trade requires a more proactive approach to address emerging trends, and low-cost and effective solutions to prevent species decline. Over a 5-month period in 2017, we used expert-driven horizon scanning, facilitated online, to identify emerging trends of the illegal wildlife trade in Mesoamerica. We found that the main emerging trends included digital and technological advancements, greater regional access to the global community, developments in trafficking techniques and growing demand for certain species. Our findings demonstrate that horizon scanning can be used as a tool for identifying emerging trends of illegal wildlife trade in data-poor contexts. We recommend that horizon scanning is used regularly for systematic monitoring of trends and to prioritize resources for immediate and emerging trends in illegal wildlife trade.