Rising international demand from collectors for the insects of Papua New Guinea, in particular the endemic birdwing butterflies (Ornithoptera spp.), has been met since 1978 by the government sponsored Insect Farming and Trading Agency (IFTA). Institutions such as IFTA have the potential to satisfy markets through legitimate trading, boost local livelihoods and thus provide conservation incentives, and satisfy CITES criteria. Until the onset in Papua New Guinea of large-scale logging and mining in the 1990s, and a crisis of governance, IFTA was widely regarded as a conservation and development success. However, analysis of its trading records for 1995-2002 suggests that this agency is now struggling to sustain payments to village-based insect ranchers and collectors. This failure, combined with the limited number of ranchers and collectors and their restricted geographical spread, casts some doubt on this model of sustainable conservation.

The Tucumán parrot Amazona tucumana is a rare, Near Threatened species on CITES Appendix I with a restricted range in the tropical and subtropical montane forests of Argentina and Bolivia. We assessed the conservation status of the species in Argentina based on a detailed review of available information and an extensive survey throughout its range. A total of 6,015 individuals were detected in 14 sites, eight of which are new localities. The total number recorded in this study represents less than a third of the number exported from Argentina between 1985 and 1989 (18,641), indicating a significant reduction in population size. Research needs to be extended to additional sites, especially in Bolivia, to assess further the global status of the species, and high priority given to the creation of state and private reserves for the species.

Sound knowledge of underlying mechanisms is essential for understanding how species respond to habitat fragmentation. Because most threatened species are typically the first ones to suffer local extinctions with forest fragmentation, studying why they fare poorly at the broader landscape scale is difficult. Related, sympatric but common species may be useful surrogates if they can provide insights germane for the conservation of rarer species. We illustrate this using a case study from the highly fragmented Taita Hills forests, south-eastern Kenya, of the Critically Endangered Taita thrush Turdus helleri and the more common white-starred robin Pogonocichla stellata as the surrogate. The responses of the thrush to habitat disturbance were in the same direction as the surrogate robin (e.g. higher fluctuating asymmetry, lower effective population densities and male-biased sex ratios), albeit they were detected sooner and were more severe because of its lower dispersal capacity. The key conservation measures proposed from the surrogate study largely matched those based on an independent evaluation of the thrush data. Additionally, the surrogate provided extra insights into the potential solutions for problems facing the thrush, and provided a base that could be used as a template for restoring the thrush populations in this area. Thus, our findings support the use of surrogate species in the conservation of sympatric related species in fragmented landscapes. We contend that this approach is also applicable for allopatric related species where landscapes are similar, provided that detailed data on population patterns and processes for the surrogate are available.

The poorly studied bat fauna of the Fiji Islands is of notable conservation importance because it includes one endemic species, several near endemics, and the best global populations of several threatened species. In addition, some of the species play a keystone role as pollinators and seed dispersers in valuable forest ecosystems. We visited 30 islands of the archipelago to survey bats and assess their conservation status and the potential threats to their continued existence. The Vulnerable Notopteris macdonaldi occurs on the three main islands but may only have nurseries on one of them. The Critically Endangered, endemic Mirimiri acrodonta appears to be restricted to a small montane area on a single island. Pteropus tonganus is consumed throughout rural Fiji but remains common and is not currently threatened by the harvest. The Near Threatened Pteropus samoensis is locally common on the largest islands but threatened on some smaller islands. The Endangered Chaerephon bregullae exists only on two islands and appears to concentrate in a single large colony to nurse young. The Endangered Emballonura semicaudata has declined dramatically in Fiji, as across most of its range, although a few substantial populations remain on some small islands. Factors threatening these species are variable but include small ranges, concentration in a reduced number of colonies, deforestation, over-harvesting, and introduced predators. We propose conservation measures and indicate a number of priority sites.

Pteropus vampyrus natunae, the Bornean subspecies of the large flying fox, has important roles in pollination but unsustainable hunting has been reported in Malaysian states. We provide the first description of hunting techniques and intensity in Indonesian Borneo. In forests around Palangka Raya this species is captured in canopy-level nets to support trade in the provincial capital. We estimate that in 2003 4,500 individuals were extracted from a single location in 30 days, which, together with trends reported in interviews with hunters and traders, suggests that hunting in this region is intensive and probably causing severe population declines. Further surveys are needed throughout Kalimantan to determine if this trend is occurring around other cities and whether intervention is needed to safeguard viable populations.

Data on the occurrence and habitat use of giant otters Pteronura brasiliensis in the 4,437 km2 of Balbina hydroelectric lake in central Amazonia, Brazil, were collected from September 2001 to December 2005. Twenty-nine groups of giant otters were recorded in an area corresponding to 10% of the total reservoir. Despite the fact that it is a hydroelectric lake, the water level can vary annually by up to 3.5 m with the Amazonian seasonal flood pulse. A total of 210 dens, communal latrines and campsites of giant otters were located. An average of 37% of the dens observed were classified as in use, and the species was recorded in the lake throughout the year. Giant otters started their daily activities between 05.23 and 08.05. The average height of den openings was 28.77 ± SD 10.00 cm, with an average width of 56.11 ± SD 19.17 cm. Births in Balbina occur mainly during the period of high and receding water level, as reported for giant otters in other Amazonian areas. There are at least two conditions that enable the species to inhabit hydroelectric reservoirs: (1) presence of the species in the area before dam construction and (2) absence or low numbers of human communities around the reservoir. The potential use of hydroelectric lakes for the conservation of the giant otter in the Amazon is discussed.

A survey of Vulnerable Barbary macaque Macaca sylvanus populations in the Djebela region of northern Morocco was conducted in October-November 2004 and the species' presence verified in four areas. This macaque occurs in habitat types ranging from matorral (shrub vegetation) to higher altitude fir forest. A total of 89 individuals were observed in nine groups. Comparisons of our survey with the previous one undertaken in the same area in 1980 indicate that group sizes are similar but the total population size may have decreased. We estimate there is a population of 200–300 Barbary macaques in the Djebela. Although some areas where the species is found are now protected, further work will be crucial to safeguarding this species in northern Morocco.

The Critically Endangered black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis occurs mainly in protected areas. Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park, South Africa, contains a key source population for black rhino conservation, and declining population productivity has been attributed to negative habitat changes and a reduction in carrying capacity. As home range increase may be an index of declining habitat quality we determined the home ranges of the black rhino in the Park and compared these ranges with previous estimates. The average size of the home ranges during 1991–2001 was 23.07 ± SE 0.81 km2, which is 54% greater than in the 1980s. Sex and the availability of water did not influence home ranges. Home ranges decreased in winter. Female:male ratios varied across the Park, indicating that one or both sexes may prefer specific areas. Changes in vegetation structure and composition may have caused rhino to maintain larger ranges in order to meet their nutritional requirements. Ongoing review of stocking rates, population performance (including indicators such as range size), and intervention strategies are necessary to manage black rhino in dynamic savannah ecosystems.

The black-and-white snub-nosed monkey Rhinopithecus bieti (Colobinae), categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, is endemic to the Trans-Himalayas (the Hengduan Mountains) of north-west Yunnan and south-east Tibet. To evaluate the species’ current status in Tibet we surveyed six sites in Honglaxueshan National Nature Reserve, believed to be the area's only remaining location of R. bieti. Sites were identified from previous surveys and interviews with villagers and local officials. Three sub-populations, with a total of >300 individuals, were located in conifer and evergreen broad-leaf forests, which together comprise 971 km2. One of the sub-populations, in Zhina, is a new discovery, and is the northernmost known sub-population of R. bieti. Identified threats to the species include habitat destruction through wood extraction, uncontrolled grass fires, cutting of oak Quercus aquifolioides branches, inappropriate attitudes to R. bieti when people carry out economic activities in the forest, and hunting. Opportunities for conservation include the existence of sacred mountains, the limited possibilities for agriculture, and the economic dependency of villagers on the forest. We recommend the development of a sustainable ecosystem to reduce pressure on R. bieti and its forest habitat, including use of solar energy for heating and cheap electricity for cooking to minimize dependence on firewood, introduction of techniques for high crop yields to improve food supplies, and release of some farmland for planting grass, which can be used to raise livestock in enclosures and thus reduce the cutting of oak.

In February 2005 a survey confirmed the existence of Critically Endangered dama gazelle Gazella dama in south Tamesna, eastern Mali. Two zones, covering an area of 1,775 km2, were systematically surveyed. Seven gazelles were seen and evidence was found of 18 additional individuals, giving an estimated density of 0.047 gazelles km−2. The dama gazelles are taking refuge in places where it is difficult to drive because of a strongly-marked relief and the presence of grassy tussocks. Preliminary genetic analysis of faeces indicates that these gazelles belong to the subspecies Gazella dama dama. These populations are of particular importance for the conservation of the dama gazelle, and an aerial survey has been planned to confirm the terrestrial observations. The government of Mali has, however, already decided to create three protected areas in Tamesna for the conservation of the dama gazelle and Vulnerable dorcas gazelle Gazella dorcas.

The forests of the Cameroon-Nigeria transboundary region have been highlighted as a high conservation priority, yet many of the extant forest remnants remain relatively unknown, particularly with regard to the occurrence of large mammals. Between 2002 and 2004 we surveyed the large mammal fauna of the Mone and Ejagham Forest Reserves and the Upper Banyang, Nkwende Hills and Etinde forests of south-west Cameroon. Our objective was to document the extant large mammal species as an important step in the review of government priorities to identify key sites within the region for conservation and management. We reviewed the available literature on mammal distribution and then surveyed the forests for mammal and human signs. Despite a growing illegal commercial trade in wildlife, particularly for bushmeat, many sites retain populations of one or more threatened and locally rare large mammal species of significant conservation importance. Moreover, the sites collectively complement each other in terms of their representation of the threatened large mammal fauna. An emphasis on the enforcement of wildlife legislation and minimizing logging impact are of primary importance for the conservation of large mammals in these and other forest remnants in south-west Cameroon. In addition, at some sites, there already exists community interest in active wildlife management.

Despite being one of the rarest felids in the world the Endangered Bornean bay cat Catopuma badia has received little conservation attention. Most information consists of historical records, morphological descriptions, and anecdotes from various sources. During 2003–2006 we undertook surveys using camera trapping, interviews and field observations, to determine the species’ distribution and document any threats to its persistence. We also examined museum specimens and completed a thorough literature review, collecting 15 additional geographic records throughout Borneo. Our results show that opportunistic hunting and land use changes are the main threats to the bay cat, and we make recommendations for its conservation.

The mountain chicken Leptodactylus fallax, the largest amphibian in the Caribbean, restricted to Dominica and Montserrat, is Critically Endangered. We investigated the presence of disease in the mountain chicken and in the sympatric cane toad Bufo marinus and Johnstone's whistling frog Eleutherodactylus johnstonei in the Centre Hills on Montserrat. Skin swabs of mountain chickens and B. marinus, and toe clips from E. johnstonei, were tested for Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, the causative organism of cutaneous chytridiomycosis. Additionally, mountain chicken blood serum samples (n = 57) were examined for exposure to ranavirus. No chytrid or exposure to ranavirus was detected. We draw tentative conclusions about disease threats to the Montserrat mountain chicken population, and present preliminary recommendations for safeguarding this species.

Over 8 months we surveyed the Lake Tumba landscape, Democratic Republic of Congo, walking 86 km of transects and 324 km of reconnaissance, to document the distribution and estimate the abundance of great apes. Five separate groups of bonobo Pan paniscus were located in the areas of Bolombo-Losombo, Mbala-Donkese, Ngombe-Botuali, Botuali-Ilombe, and Mompulenge–Mbanzi-Malebo–Nguomi, and one population of chimpanzees Pan troglodytes in the Bosobele-Lubengo area. Mean bonobo densities ranged from 0.27 individuals km-2 in the vicinity of Lake Tumba to 2.2 individuals km-2 in the Malebo-Nguomi area. In the latter they appear to be living at a higher density than reported for any other site. This may be due to the area's forest-savannah mosaic habitat, which may provide year-round fruit sources, with bonobos falling back on savannah fruits when forest resources are scarce. The bonobos of the Bolombo-Losombo area and the Bosobele-Lubengo chimpanzees have low relative abundances and live in marginal habitats of islands of terra firma within inundated forests.

The endemic Madagascar flying fox Pteropus rufus is threatened by habitat loss at roost sites and hunting for bushmeat. There is no conservation plan for this species, even though it is categorized on the IUCN Red List as Vulnerable and plays an important role as a seed disperser. In the Mangoro valley of central eastern Madagascar we monitored roost occupancy and abundance of P. rufus on 15 occasions at six sites over a 12-month period and conducted a detailed assessment of eight roosts during July 2004. There was considerable monthly variation in bat abundance and only two sites contained bats during every visit. Three sites were occupied only between September and March and may act as maternity or nursery roosts. Evidence of hunting was found at three roosts, and fire and forest clearance are ubiquitous threats. Two roosts were in Eucalyptus plantations and six were in small (2.2 - 28.7 ha) isolated fragments of degraded, mid elevation dense humid forest. All roosts were outside protected areas but were within 20 km of relatively intact forest. Faecal analysis revealed a diet of native forest tree species, cultivated fruits and Eucalyptus flowers. P. rufus in the Mangoro valley, and elsewhere in Madagascar, appears to survive in human-impacted environments by the inclusion of exotic plants in its diet and the ability to move between roosts. We provide conservation recommendations for P. rufus at both local and national levels.

We report estimates of the area and rate of loss and fragmentation of Liberian forests from 1986 to 2000. These estimates are based on comprehensive mapping using Landsat satellite imagery, which has a resolution of 28.5 m. We estimate a total forest cover of 4.65 million ha in 1986 and 4.33 million ha in 2000. Most of Liberia's remaining forest is in two large regions. These forests are very important biologically because they are the largest remaining forest areas in West Africa. The average deforestation rate was low at 0.2% per year during 1986–2000. Although the fragmentation of Liberia's forests is also relatively low, most of the remaining forest is readily accessible as it is within a few km of existing roads. This ease of accessibility suggests that the present low deforestation rate could increase if conservation planning is not effectively implemented.

In marine turtles the selection of oviposition habitat is a key determinant of offspring success. I investigated which environmental features influenced the nesting activity and nest distribution of the hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata by daily monitoring of a rookery on the coast of the Arabian Gulf, in Qatar. I mapped the distribution of turtle nests and unsuccessful nesting attempts and measured key beach features. Data were analysed using autoregressive models, a specific regression technique dealing with spatial autocorrelation. Distribution of nests and unsuccessful nesting attempts were strongly spatially autocorrelated. In some areas almost all the turtles that approached the beach excavated a nest, whereas in other areas nesting was scarce but many unsuccessful attempts were observed. Turtle activity was lower in areas with a steep coastline and high rock cover. Nest density was higher on beaches with a low slope and little rock cover, and with soft soil and high vegetation cover. The density of unsuccessful nesting attempts was higher in areas with hard soil and low vegetation cover. These results are relevant for the management and restoration of nesting areas for this Critically Endangered species.