This chapter analyzes Lane’s clever use of combinations of geographical, temporal and formal markers in his titles, alternative titles and subtitles to indicate to borrowers and buyers what kind of story a volume contained and explains how this book’s chapters follow and explore the taxonomy he designed. The second section describes the construction of Lane’s principal genres and the sophisticated methods of imitative writing used to compose them. These overlaid romance with realism and made repetition-with-difference a primary mode of communication to engender the Press’s characteristically innovative, modular and debating texts. The chapter concludes by using Clara Reeve’s arguments in The Progress of Romance (1785) to contrast the Aesthetics of Originality which we have inherited from the Romantics with the Aesthetics of Reuse which had been used since the Renaissance to notice and evaluate the “beauties” of imitative writing, and which ordinary readers still use today.

The Byzantine Rite today transcends confessional, geographical, linguistic and cultural barriers. It is the ritual expression of millions of believers, both Orthodox and Catholic, throughout the world. This essay looks at the Byzantine Rite as it is practised in the Greek and Slavonic traditions, notes some observable differences between the two, then continues with a discussion of the Greek Catholic tradition, and ends with a discussion about movements of renewal and reform.

As it re-evaluates the foundational role of translation in shaping modern Arabic literature, this chapter challenges reductive narratives that portray translation as a mere one-way importation of European forms, instead revealing a rich legacy of literary exchange where Arabic literature has both absorbed and influenced global traditions. Through case studies spanning from the Nahda to post-9/11 publishing trends and prize circuits, the chapter demonstrates how translation mediates aesthetics, ethics, and cultural capital. It further analyzes the politics of domestication and foreignization in English translations of Arabic texts at several points in recent history. The chapter posits that Arabic literature has always been world literature, not solely through its export into English, but through its deep embeddedness in transhistorical and translingual circuits of exchange. Ultimately, translation is presented not as a secondary act, but as a constitutive force in Arabic literary modernity and its global reception.

While the importance of John Peter Zenger’s trial for libel in 1735 as a milestone for freedom of the press is clear, the real Zenger, I argue, has been lost to history. Missed in the spotlight of his trial is the fact that Zenger possessed a powerful voice of his own and used his press on behalf of New York’s polyglot population for almost twenty years. In jail, Zenger composed eloquent letters that spoke to his humanity and innate sense of justice. Upon his release from prison, he completed The Charter of the City of New York, the work of skilled craftsman and civic leader. Zenger also played an important role serving a distinctive immigrant readership hungry for instruction, guidance, and entertainment. He published songbooks in German, Dutch, and English, the first mathematics book in the colony, and sermons by New Light ministers such as George Whitefield and Jacob Frelinghuysen. This chapter also considers the importance of Zenger’s wife, Anna Catharine Zenger. From 1746 to 1751, “Widow Zenger” published ground-breaking work that reveals a printer dedicated to the humanitarian values of her husband, with a notable feminist slant.

The Color of Social Security traces the myriad ways and interconnected social systems in which racism has been embedded into American social security programs. Drawing on American history, Jon C. Dubin exposes institutionalized processes undermining racially equitable receipt of retirement and disability benefits. Examples include the 1935 Social Security Act, which excluded Black agricultural and domestic workers in order to protect the postbellum Southern racial economic and political order; the 1972 Supplemental Security Income program’s exclusion of persons of color in the US territories, with genesis in 125 years of racialized colonial domination; 1980s criminal justice system restrictions; systemic racial bias in disability decisions in the 1990s; disability eligibility obstacles from “race-norming” in the 2000s; and the misevaluation of Black claimants with sickle cell disease under Social Security Administration regulations since 2015. While exploring these histories, Dubin offers concrete solutions to address racial inequity and create a more equitable future.

In this chapter we visit the classrooms of four different teachers of English from around the world. These include a primary school teacher in rural India, a tertiary EMI teacher in Kenya, a secondary teacher in Bangladesh and a private sector teacher of adults in Ukraine. We learn about who they teach and why, and the role and status of English and other languages in their current pedagogy. For each of these teachers we then explore the influences on what happens in their classroom. We notice the translanguaging that is already happening in all of these classrooms, often unnoticed and unsanctioned, before we go on to explore the potential opportunities for translanguaging for the four teachers and the many constraints that may make it difficult, at times, for them to use multilingual approaches. We then identify the key factors that determine the nature of translanguaging classrooms in English language teaching. These include factors relating to the learners, the teacher and the context in which learning happens. Readers are encouraged to reflect on how the twelve factors identified influence translanguaging opportunities.

This chapter examines the Byzantine Rite Divine Liturgy at Hagia Sophia, the Great Church of Constantinople, roughly in the period after the end of Iconoclasm after 843 until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The beginning of this period coincides with the liturgical texts of the Divine Liturgy in the oldest extant Byzantine euchologion that serve as the basis for the synchronic and thematic analysis of the preparatory rites, the reading of Scripture, the moments of consecration and the reception of communion. Along with the texts of the prayers of the Divine Liturgy from the euchologion, the diataxis (book of rubrics) of Philotheos Kokkinos and Demetrios Gemistos and liturgical commentaries by St Germanos of Constantinople, Nicholas of Andida, Nicholas Kabasilas and St Symeon of Thessalonike are brought together to present a more complete picture of the Byzantine Divine Liturgy. Nevertheless, this is the perspective of the clergy—and not the faithful—since by this time the prayers were recited inaudibly. For a better understanding of what the faithful experienced during the Divine Liturgy, questions of hymnography, mystagogy, movement and participation are briefly examined. Overall, the Divine Liturgy expressed the theology of the Church as a vision of the glory of God and the celebration of the passion, death, burial and resurrection of Christ. Thus, the church became the dwelling place of God—whether in the Great Church of Constantinople or anywhere the Byzantine Rite was celebrated.

The subject of this chapter is the Byzantine church from the reconquest of Constantinople in 1261 until the fall of the Byzantine empire, with a distinct focus on the fourteenth-century hesychast controversy. Key themes addressed are the relations between the church and State, ecclesiastical reform and mysticism. Beginning with the Arsenite Schism of the late thirteenth century and the reforms of Athanasius I in the early fourteenth, most attention is paid to the dramatic upheaval in ecclesiastical life created by the hesychast controversy that began in the 1330s and continued with vigour for several decades. We summarise the nature of the controversy, highlighting the strong synthesis of ascetic and sacramental practice and theology it created. This synthesis was quickly bequeathed beyond the empire’s borders, especially among Slavic Christians, and it likewise proved resilient for Greek-speaking Christians of the Ottoman empire after the fall of Constantinople. The theology and spirituality of the late Byzantine church in this period became instrumental in shaping the ongoing practices and theology of the Orthodox church.

For the Byzantine emperor orthodoxy was a strategic imperative. From the perspective of Constantinople, to practise wrong belief, whether as a Jew or a Christian not adhering to imperially defined orthodoxy, was a dissident act which risked angering God and could put the empire in peril. For the dissidents themselves, to obey imperial religious policy was to betray God, and therefore not an option.

This chapter considers dissident practices and their persecution by emperors through a series of case studies from roughly the sixth through twelfth centuries. The chapter begins with a study of the persecution of those who opposed the Council of Chalcedon, particularly under the reign of the emperor Justinian. This is followed by the persecution of the Jews, with a focus on the period beginning in the seventh century. We then address the opponents of imperial religious policy, namely the Christological policies of the Heraclian dynasty, and resistance during the iconoclast controversy. Finally, we conclude with two semi-dualistic movements, the Paulicians and Bogomils.

How was al-fuṣḥā as the idealized form of Arabic ideologically constructed and contested in modern literary and linguistic discourse? Tracing its historical evolution from a marker of eloquence to a symbol of linguistic purity and correctness, the chapter explores how al-fuṣḥā became central to debates over language, identity, and literary legitimacy during and after the Nahda. Through a close reading of Taha Hussein’s lectures and writings, it highlights the tensions between accessibility and elitism, tradition and innovation, and the performative and prescriptive dimensions of al-fuṣḥā. While al-fuṣḥā has been upheld as the language of public discourse and cultural heritage, its rigid policing has alienated it from everyday usage and literary creativity. Ultimately, this chapter promotes a more inclusive and historically grounded understanding of Arabic’s linguistic diversity and literary potential.