This chapter analyzes the Prague Rules’ claim to maximizing process efficiency by limiting party-autonomy and emphasizing arbitrator discretion. In this context, it is asserted that the re-shifting of focus from the parties to the arbitral tribunal does not and cannot lead to optimal efficiency. Hence, notwithstanding the Prague Rules’ settlement provision, these rules fail to create an environment providing for the (i) identification, (ii) quantification, and (iii) communication of risk that would drive the parties to a voluntary settlement of the dispute, foreclosing a zero-sum result. The delay, lack of efficiency, and indeterminacy plaguing ICA simply are not cured by the Prague Rules’ shift of emphasis. Comprehensive evidential analysis and objective standards remain necessary predicates to settlement, irrespective of any enhancement of arbitrator discretion and corresponding diminution of party-autonomy.

The Conclusion first reiterates the three main arguments of the book. It then surveys changes and continuities in global education and development policies since the 1960s, while also touching on the present state of public education in Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire. It closes by reflecting on education’s double-edged nature as it relates to the problem of freedom: Does education emancipate, or oppress?

A survey of language variation (phonological, lexical, grammatical, and pragmatic) - includes regional, generational, and gender variation. Covers the difference between languages and language varieties, kinds of variation (regional, socioeconomic, gender, age, vocational), phonological variation, lexical varation, grammatical variation, and discourse and stylistic variation.

Distillation (Bucila et al., 2006; Hinton et al., 2015) is a technique for obtaining a small and computationally efficient model that performs the same function as a large and computationally intensive model. The original large model is referred to as the teacher model, and the resulting small model is called the student model. It is also common to employ an ensemble of multiple models as the teacher model.

There are also purely algebraic reasons why nilpotent groups should be of interest. Firstly, there is the well-known connection between homology, lower central series and (Massey) products [Dw75, St65].

This chapter reviews the expanding legal scope of the subject, noting the universalisation of international law beyond its European roots and the development of international human rights law and international criminal law, as well as the rise of international organisations. Modern theories and interpretations are examined, ranging from the natural law/positive law debates, referring to Kelsen and Hart in particular, to more contemporary approaches, such as power politics and balance of power, behaviouralism and the policy-oriented school including the views of McDougal and Franck, with the latter’s focus on legitimacy, and on to the critical legal studies movement, noting the important work of Koskenniemi, particularly emphasising the relationship between law and society. These various theories and approaches illustrate and reveal the political, ethical and social aspects of international law. The chapter then turns to discuss the problem of the fragmentation of international law, with the rise of special treaty regimes and particular rules, and how the system may deal with this phenomenon.

Chapter 7 looks at the role of officials in carrying out religious policy. It begins with an analysis of their social profile from the 1950s to the Cultural Revolution and shows that despite officials’ rising literacy and improved political education, they found it hard to carry out a policy that demanded respect for religious freedom, on the one hand, and the elimination of folk religion, coded as ‘feudal superstition’. The chapter looks at four dimensions of officials’ involvement in implementing religious policy: their response to the destruction of lineages and to the persistence of lineage sentiment; their involvement in the levelling of gravesites during collectivization; their relationship to the popular upsurge to restore the ‘sacred village’ in the aftermath of the famine; and the support of a significant minority in sustaining folk religion. It shows grassroots officials displayed a variety of responses to folk religion, which affected the experiences of believers.

This chapter examines the foreign teacher recruitment strategies mobilized by Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire. Economists and politicians agreed that secondary schools were crucial for producing the skilled workers essential to development. But new nations faced an intractable roadblock as they sought to expand secondary schools: a deficit of local teachers. Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire found different solutions to the crisis of teacher scarcity, although both relied on foreigners. Ghana turned to plural sources of generally inexperienced educators. Côte d’Ivoire, instead, leaned on French teachers available through technical assistance (or coopération). Both strategies responded to the maddening paradox of the postcolonial teacher: a role that West Africans agreed was essential, but which few opted to pursue. Ultimately, the reliance on foreign teachers contributed to the corrosion of the emancipatory project of public education.

In this chapter, we provide an overview of how second languages (L2s) are acquired, processed and represented in the brain. We begin by reviewing experimental methods, along with relevant studies employing them, with a particular focus on fMRI and EEG, two metabolic and electrophysiological measures that elucidate our knowledge of multiple languages in one brain. We then discuss a few moderating effects of L2 acquisition along with a dialogue of how multilinguals process structure and meaning as elaborated in key theories. Finally, we elaborate on how research on multiple memory systems can possibly shed light on the acquisition and teaching of L2s in the classroom with respect to the effectiveness of the explicit presentation of grammar rules and feedback. We conclude by identifying research topics that are shaping ongoing work in bilingual processing and sparking new dialogues that have the potential to significantly advance the field.

In this chapter, we present and discuss the contributions that usage-based theories of language have made to the theory and practice of second language learning and teaching. Soon after its establishment as an independent theoretical framework, usage-based linguistics inaugurated an applied branch with two volumes by Pütz et al. dedicated to second language acquisition (SLA) and language pedagogy (LP). Rather unusually, usage-based theories retained a close link between linguistic theory, the theoretical study of language acquisition and the development of language pedagogy, resulting in a number of direct applications of usage-based linguistic insights to the study of language learning and teaching.Because of the crucial role that cognitive capacities play in usage-based approaches they are naturally amenable to the integration of insights from psychology. We will zoom in on a particularly fruitful line of research that has seen insights from the psychology of learning applied to language across L1 and in L2. Looking ahead, we discus work that puts learning models from psychology to use for the operationalisation of the usage-based notion of emergence, thereby challenging traditional assumptions regarding the mental representations of language attributed to language learners by linguists and how these apply to the theory and practice of L2 learning and teaching.

From the late nineteenth century onwards, Greek and Roman religion was increasingly characterised as ritualistic and collective, with little role for belief, while belief itself was increasingly associated with Christianity. By the 1990s, the dominant view in classical studies aligned closely with functionalist traditions in the wider study of religion, linking Greek and Roman religion with social cohesion and identity, and rejecting belief as an irrelevance. Since then, fresh arguments have emerged, some drawing on the cognitive science of religion, which reject the association of belief with Christianity and argue that a culturally neutral, purely propositional sense of believing is both possible and necessary. However, work in anthropology and early modern history, particularly on the emergence of ‘propositional religion’ during the Reformation, suggests that the concept of belief continues to carry complex cultural baggage. Despite recent developments, the debate over how best to represent the religious experience of the Greeks and Romans remains open.

The presence of witches in Walter Scott’s Waverly novels is suggestive of social and occasionally political disorder, but their presence – like the context of revolutionary crises – also provides his male characters with an opportunity to confront something larger than themselves, a possibly inimical force, and to evolve in this process. Scott, not satisfied with collecting works of demonology, decided to write one himself. This chapter investigates the tensions in his Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft between Scott’s impartiality as a demonologist and a writer of historical fiction, his antiquarian impulse and the genuine sympathy he has for women accused of witchcraft.

Chapter 5 addressing the learning and teaching of concepts adopts a Piagetian developmental perspective contrasted with classically based philosophical approaches that define completed concepts through rigid definitions, prototypes, or theories. Piaget emphasizes the dynamic processes of assimilation and accommodation through which individuals construct concepts based on discrepant experiences. This constructive process is inherently personal and internal. A teacher supporting concept development works through a hypothetical learning trajectory that envisions the student’s current understanding and the transformational processes through which a more sound conceptualization may arise. Lecturing about concepts can be a successful strategy provided the student is metacognitively sophisticated and can sense discrepancies between the ideas presented by the teacher and their own conceptions of the content.