Most important among the primary sources for this period are newspapers, especially El Mercurio and El Diario Ilustrado from the Right, La Nación from the government, and La Opinión and El Siglo from the Left. Periodicals, notably Ercilla and Zig-Zag, are also useful; see in particular a series of candid retrospectives with past political actors arranged by Wilfredo Mayorga in Ercilla during 1965–8. The tables compiled by Markos Mamalakis, Historical Statistics of Chile, 5 vols. (Westport, Conn., 1979, 1980, 1982, 1984, 1985) are an indispensable source of information.

The most valuable memoirs come from President Arturo Alessandri Palma, Recuerdos de gobierno, 3 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1952); U.S. Ambassador Claude G. Bowers, Chile through Embassy Windows (New York, 1958); President Gabriel González Videla, Memorias, 2 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1975); Elías Lafertte, Vida de un comunista (Santiago, Chile, 1961); Arturo Olavarria Bravo, Chile entre dos Alessandri, 4 vols. (Santiago, Chile, 1962, 1965), by a professional politician; Eudocio Ravines, La gran estafa (Santiago, Chile, 1954), by a disillusioned Comintern agent; and General Carlos Sáez Morales, Recuerdos de un soldado, 3 vols. (Santiago, 1934).

The best general history of Chile is Brian Loveman, Chile: The Legacy of Hispanic Capitalism, 2nd ed. (New York, 1988). A comprehensive contribution on the period from the 1930s to the 1950s is Paul W. Drake, Socialism and Populism in Chile, 1932–52 (Urbana, Ill., 1978). Other basic works include the collection of articles in Universidad de Chile, Desarrollo de Chile en la primera mitad del siglo XX, 2 vols.

In 1973 the Scarecrow Press (Washington, D.C.) published an appendix to Max Bissainthe’s Dictionnaire de bibliographic haïtienne (Washington, D.C, 1951); together they represent the best bibliography of works on Haiti and by Haitians. For the latter part of the period, Kraus International has published The Complete Haitiana, 1900–1980 (Millwood, N.Y., 1982), edited by Michel Laguerre. It is a disappointing volume; for some of its shortcomings, see L.-F. Hoffmann, ‘The incomplete Haitiana’, Caribbean Review, 12/2 (1983). Mention should also be made of Max Manigat, Haitiana, 1971–1975 (LaSalle, Que., 1980) and vol. 39 in the World Bibliographical Series, compiled by Frances Chambers, Haiti (Oxford and Santa Barbara, Calif, 1983).

James Leyburn’s classic, The Haitian People (1941; rev. ed. with forward by Sidney Mintz, New Haven, Conn., 1966) remains one of the best introductions to Haitian history and social structure, despite its occasional shortcomings. Leyburn failed to recognise the full significance of the urban middle class and of important economic and social distinctions among the rural population; in the historical sections he is sometimes a victim of what may be called the ‘mulatto legend’ of the Haitian past. A book by the Polish scholar, Tadeusz Lepkowski, has been translated into Spanish under the title Haití (Havana, 1968–9); the author deals, among other things, with the early history of Haiti, with Haitian historiography and with the development of agriculture. Robert Rotberg, Haiti: The Politics of Squalor (Boston, 1971) has useful sections on the Haitian economy of the period but is otherwise undistinguished.

economy

G. Di Telia and M. Zymelman, Las etapas del desarrollo economico argentino (Buenos Aires, 1967), is a general work inspired by W. W. Rostow’s stages of growth theory. Aldo Ferrer, The Argentine Economy (Berkeley, 1967), first published in Spanish in 1964, is a less factual, much more interpretive account that reflects views on development and dependency typical of the late 1950s and early 1960s. Ferrer’s Crisis y alternativas de la política económica (Buenos Aires, 1977) brings the analysis up to the late 1970s. Carlos Díaz Alejandro, Essays on the Economic History of the Argentine Republic (New Haven, Conn., 1970), is a collection of excellent economic analyses of different aspects of Argentine history that has been very influential. Laura Randall, An Economic History of Argentina in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1978), tries to interpret Argentina’s development as a succession of rather clear-cut economic models; some historians have found it unconvincing. R. Mallon and J. V. Sourruoille, Economic Policy in a Conflictive Society: The Argentine Case (Cambridge, Mass., 1975), explores economic problems, particularly in the mid-1960s, without excluding political variables.

D. Rock, Argentina, 1516–1987: From Spanish Colonization to Alfonsín (Berkeley, 1987), is a comprehensive history that reveals great economic insight; it is the best introduction to the history of Argentina in this period. Gary Wynia, Argentina in the Post-War Era: Politics and Economic Policy Making in a Divided Society (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1978), concentrates on decision making in the period from 1946 to 1976. Two general essays discuss the main issues in the economic history of the period: G. Di Telia, ‘Controversias económicas en la Argentina, 1930–1970’, in J. Fogarty, E. Gallo and H. Diéguez (eds.), Argentina y Australia (Buenos Aires, 1979); and C. Díaz Alejandro, ‘No less than one hundred years of Argentine economic history plus some comparisons’, in G. Ranis, R. L. West, M. W. Leiserson and C. Taft Morris (eds.), Comparative Development Perspectives: Essays in Honor of Lloyd G. Reynolds (Boulder, Colo., 1984).

Among contemporary works, Médéric L. E. Moreau de Saint-Méry, Description topographique, physique, civile, politique et historique de la partie française de I’isle de Saint Domingue, 2 vols. (Philadelphia, 1797–8; 3 vols., Paris, 1984; English version, abridged, edited and translated by Ivor A. Spencer, A Civilization That Perished: The Last Years of White Colonial Rule in Haiti (Lanham, Md., 1985), and Bryan Edwards, An Historical Survey of the French Colony in the Island of St. Domingo (London, 1797) offer the most comprehensive view of the economic, social and political problems of colonial Saint-Domingue in the years immediately before the French Revolution. See also on Haiti before 1808, Thomas Madiou, Histoire d’Haiti, vols. 1–3 (1847–8; Port-au-Prince, 1904). The best and most comprehensive work on the Haitian Revolution continues to be C. L. R. James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution (New York, 1938; and numerous later editions). Other, less satisfactory, works include José L. Franco, Historia de la revolution de Haiti (Havana, 1966), and T. O. Ott, The Haitian Revolution, 1789–1804 (Knoxville, 1973). A book now out of fashion because of its racism, though still retaining some interest, is T. Lothrop Stoddard, The French Revolution in San Domingo (Boston, 1914; reprint, 1982). Among the many biographies of Toussaint Louverture two are now classics: Victor Schoelcher, Vie de Toussaint-Louverture (1889; Paris, 1982), and Horace Pauléus Sannon, Histoire de Toussaint-Louverture, 3 vols. (Port-au-Prince, 1920–33). See also Pierre Pluchon, Toussaint-Louverture, d’esclavage au pouvoir (Paris, 1979). There are contrasting accounts of the military side of the Revolution.

Both leading American realists, both dedicated and militant socialists, Jack London and Upton Sinclair were nevertheless completely different in temperament and philosophy of life. Although they appreciated each other's works, they only met twice, in circumstances not entirely favorable for the development of a friendship. Whereas London hailed the publication of Sinclair's The Jungle with generous praise, thus propelling the book and its author toward international fame, Sinclair was less generous in his appraisal of London, basing his criticism not on the work but on the man. Voicing his own deep-set puritanical nature, he damned London for such sins as smoking, drinking, enjoying sex, resigning from the Socialist party, and making too much money? As Charmian London commented, Sinclair's misapprehensions were partly due to his lack of personal acquaintance with London and to his never having seen him sober, both their meetings having taken place in New York where London was seldom on his best behavior. It is unfortunate that Sinclair did not accept London's invitation to visit him at his Glen Ellen ranch in California, since it would have been his only opportunity to see him at work, sober and in his own surroundings.

The first Portuguese to write on Brazil was Pero Vaz de Caminha in his famous letter to King Manoel, 1 May 1500 (translated in The Voyages of Pedro Alvares Cabral to Brazil and India, Hakluyt Society, 2nd ser., vol. 81, London, 1937, 3–33). Later in the sixteenth century we have the valuable chronicles of Gabriel Soares de Sousa, Tratado descriptivo do Brasil em 1587 (São Paulo, 1938), and Pero de Magalhães de Gandavo’s Tratado da terra do Brasil and Historia da provincia de Santa Cruz (1576), translated by John B. Stetson, Jr., The Histories of Brazil, 2 vols. (New York, 1922). Essential material is in letters from Nóbrega, Anchieta and other Jesuits, best consulted in Serafim Leite’s excellent collection Cartas dos primeiros Jesuitas do Brasil, 3 vols. (São Paulo, 1954–8), or, with a fourth volume, Monumenta Brasiliae (Monumenta Historica Societatis Jesu, 79–81, 87; Rome, 1956–60); for the entire period, the same author’s monumental tenvolume Historia da Companhia de Jesus no Brasil (Lisbon–Rio de Janeiro, 1938–50) is of fundamental importance, and he published a good summary of this in Suma histórica da Companhia de Jesus no Brasil (Lisbon, 1965); there are also anthologies of José de Anchieta’s writings, of which the best is edited by António de Alcântara Machado (Rio de Janeiro, 1933). A good Jesuit chronicler is Fernão Cardim, whose Do clima e terra do Brasil and Do principio e origem dos Indios do Brasil (c. 1584) survived only in Richard Hakluyt’s English translation of the captured originals, in Samuel Purchas, Hakluytus Posthumus or Purchas His Pilgrimes (London, 1625).

Among general histories, the Enciclopedia de Cuba, 12 vols. (Madrid, 1975), edited in exile by several Cuban scholars and writers, is an uneven work which contains some valuable essays. Ramiro Guerra y Sánchez et al., Historia de la nación cubana, 10 vols. (Havana, 1952), is a compilation of essays by different authors which occasionally provides excellent information. Jorge Ibarra, Historia de Cuba (Havana, 1968) is a Marxist interpretation. Leví Marrero, Cuba: Economía y sociedad, 9 vols. (Madrid, 1976) contains the results of some excellent research but is in desperate need of organization. José Duarte Oropesa, Historiología cubana, 4 vols. (Miami, 1974) is a good contribution, rendered less valuable by the author’s reluctance to display his sources. Hortensia Pichardo, Documentos para la historia de Cuba, 4 vols. (Havana, 1976), selected with some Marxist bias, includes otherwise inaccessible documents. José Manuel Pérez Cabrera, Historiografía de Cuba (Mexico, D.F., 1952) is a valuable guide to the literature on Cuba in the nineteenth century. Fernando Portuondo, Historia de Cuba (Havana, 1957) was considered the best textbook in Cuba until 1960. Oscar Pino Santos, Historia de Cuba, aspectos fundamental (Havana, 1964) seeks to explain Cuba’s economic development or lack of it from a Marxist perspective. Emeterio Santovenia and Raúl Shelton, Cuba y su historia, 4 vols. (Miami, 1965) is a clear and reliable work by a Cuban and a North American historian. Jaime Suchlicki, Cuba, from Columbus to Castro (New York, 1974) is a good, unpretentious overview of Cuban history. In spite of a certain tendency to disregard Cuban sources, Hugh Thomas, Cuba or the Pursuit of Freedom (London, 1971) remains the most complete history of the island from 1762 to 1968.

Useful bibliographical works include Augusto Bird, Bibliografia puertorriqueña de fuentes para investigaciones sociales 1930–45 (Río Piedras, 1947) and J. Bulnes and E. González-Díaz (eds.), Bibliografía puertorriqueña de ciencias sociales (Río Piedras, 1977). The latter classifies, according to subject, books and articles written from 1931 to 1960, many of which deal with or refer to the period before 1930. See also Paquita Vivó (ed.), The Puerto Ricans: An Annotated Bibliography (New York, 1973) which comprises a very limited selection of entries, but contains useful commentaries. A. G. Quintero-Rivera (ed.), Lucha obrera: Antología de grandes documentos en la historia obrera puertorriqueña (San Juan, 1971), Eng. trans. Workers’ Struggle in Puerto Rico, a Documentary History (New York, 1976), a collection of documents on the labour movement mostly in the period 1870–1940, includes a detailed and annotated bibliography of the labour literature of the period. By the same author see Historia del analisis social en Puerto Rico, bibliografía temática (San Juan, P.R., 1990), mainly on intellectual history.

To most people who recognize the name, Thoreau conjures up his famed Walden, but those who appreciate his acute powers of observation and his ability to translate the wonder of what he sees into memorable prose quickly find their way to other of his works. Some become dedicated readers of A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers, as meandering a book as the streams it describes, as they seek hints in this early work of how better to understand what came next.' But at least as many find their way to The Maine Woods and Cape Cod, posthumously published “travel ” books in whose essays they find the same authority and eloquence as in Walden, if not at quite so sustained a level.

Both The Maine Woods and Cape Cod have at their center Thoreau’s encounters with the wilderness he so movingly describes in the penultimate chapter of Walden, where he speaks of man’s "need to witness [his[ own limits transgressed." "Man can never have enough of nature," he observes, and "must be refreshed by the sight of inexhaustible vigor, vast and Titanic features, the seacoast with its wrecks, the wilderness with its living and its decaying trees, the thunder cloud, and the rain which lasts three weeks and produces freshets" (W 318). Thoreau did not like to leave to the imagination what he might experience firsthand: The Maine Woods treats one of these wilderness landscapes, Cape Cod another.

Studies on the ‘golden age’ of Brazil have focused on only one area, Minas Gerais, which was the major gold-producing region of the colonial period. There has been an erroneous assumption that what was true for Minas Gerais was equally applicable to auriferous zones of Bahia, São Paulo, Goiás, Mato Grosso, Pernambuco and Espírito Santo. Readers should be cautious of generalizations based on the Mineiro experience and recognize that differences in topography, chronology, demography, racial composition, political importance, degree of effective crown administration and relative importance within the overall economic context resulted in wide variations among the gold-bearing regions of Brazil. The diamond industry lies beyond the scope of this essay, but an excellent introduction is provided by Augusto de Lima Júnior, História dos diamantes nas Minas Gerais (Lisbon and Rio de Janeiro, 1945) and Joaquim Felício dos Santos, Memórias do distrito diamantino da comarca do Serra do Frio, 3rd ed. (Rio de Janeiro, 1956).

Many contemporary or near-contemporary accounts of gold strikes, exploitation, consolidation and decline are available. André João Antonil (pseudonym of Antonio Giovanni Andreoni, S.J.) is valuable for the early years in Minas Gerais, although it is doubtful he ever visited the region. Available in a modern edition (edited by Andrée Mansuy, Paris, 1968), his Cultura e opulência do Brasil por suas drogas e minas (Lisbon, 1711), especially part 3, contains information not available elsewhere. It remains unsurpassed for bringing to the reader the intensity and raw emotions of the initial gold rush. Dr. Caetano Costa Matoso’s notes form the basis for the Relatos sertanistas: Colectânea, with introduction and notes by Afonso de Escragnolle Taunay (São Paulo, 1953).

The best general political history of Peru, with an extensive bibliography, is D. P. Werlich, Peru: A Short History (Carbondale, Ill., 1978). The period from 1930 to 1960 is accorded chapters in other general histories: F. B. Pike, The Modern History of Peru (London, 1967); R. B. Marette, Peru (London, 1969); H. Dobyns and P. C. Doughty, Peru: A Cultural History (New York, 1976); and J. Cotler, Clases, estado y nación en el Perú (Lima, 1978). Jorge Basadre’s massive Historia de la República del Perú, 10 vols., 5 th ed. (Lima, 1961–4) peters out in 1933, and much Peruvian historical writing on the subsequent three decades is either polemical or takes the form of personal reminiscences by political figures. The 1970s and 1980s spawned a new generation of work by both foreign and Peruvian scholars; for an introductory survey see R. Miller, ‘Introduction: Some reflections on foreign research and Peruvian history’, in R. Miller (ed.), Region and Class in Modern Peruvian History (Liverpool, 1987), 7–20.

D. M. Masterson, ‘The Peruvian armed forces in transition, 1939–1963: The impact of national politics and changing professional perspectives’ (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1976) and ‘Soldiers, sailors and Apristas: Conspiracy and power politics in Peru, 1932–1948’, in J. F. Bratzel and D. M. Masterson (eds.), The Underside of Latin American History (East Lansing, Mich., 1977), provide an excellent detailed analysis of political events, focussing on the role of the military. Foreign policy issues, particularly the Leticia case and the war with Ecuador, are covered in Ronald Bruce St. John, ‘The end of innocence: Peruvian foreign policy and the U.S., 1919–1942’, JLAS, 8/2 (1976), 325–44.

The literature potentially relevant to this topic is vast, but sprawling and unmanageable. Oscar Oszlak, ‘The historical formation of the state in Latin America’, LARR, 16/2 (1981), 3–32, is a useful start, but deals only with the nineteenth century, as does his monograph, La formatión del estado argentino (Buenos Aires, 1990). The same is true of José Murilo de Carvalho, ‘Political elites and state-building: The case of nineteenth-century Brazil’, CSSH, 24 (1982), 378–99, and Fernando Uríoechea, The Patrimonial Foundations of the Brazilian Bureaucratic State (Berkeley, 1980). The main arguments of Claudio Véliz, The Centralist Tradition of Latin America (Princeton, N.J., 1980) remain unpersuasive. Tulio Halperín-Donghi, The Aftermath of Revolution in Latin America (New York, 1973) is a useful antidote. See also Horst Pietschmann, El estado y su evolución al principio de la colonización espanola de América (Mexico, D.F., 1989); A. Annino et al., America Latina: Dello stato coloniale allo stato nazione (1750–1940), 2 vols. (Milan, 1987); Oscar Oszlak, Ensayos sobre la formacion histórica del estado en América Latina (San José, C.R., 1981); and Arnaldo Córdova, ‘Los orígenes del Estado en América Latina’, Cuaderno 32, Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (Mexico, D.F., 1977). For paired comparisons of nineteenth-century Latin American state-building, see Hélgio Trindade, ‘A construção do estado nacional na Argentina e no Brasil (1810–1900): Esboço de uma análise comparativa’, Dados, 28/1 (1985); and Fernando Uríoechea, ‘Formação e expansão do estado burocrático – patrimonial na Colombia e no Brasil’, Estudos CEBRAP, 21 (1977. See also Steven Topik, ‘The economic role of the state in Liberal regimes – Brazil and Mexico compared, 1888–1910’, in Joseph L. Love and Nils Jacobsen (eds.), Guiding the Invisible Hand: Economic Liberalism and the State in Latin American History (New York, 1988).

Even though in recent years there has been great progress in social and historical studies in Ecuador, there is still no new general history of the republic in the twentieth century. Best of the older histories written between the 1930s and the 1950s are Oscar Efrén Reyes, Breve historia general del Ecuador, 6th ed. (Quito, 1957), and Alfredo Pareja Diezcanseco, Historia del Ecuador (Quito, 1954). To these must be added an essay of general historical interpretation by Leopoldo Benitez Vinueza, Ecuador: Drama y paradoja (Mexico, D.F., 1950). A collective publication prepared in 1980 which groups short essays on diverse aspects of life in republican Ecuador is Libro del sesquicentenario, 4 vols. (Quito, 1980–2). For a general overview of contemporary Ecuador, see David W. Schodt, Ecuador, an Andean Enigma (Boulder, Colo., and London, 1987). Among the works by the new generation of social scientists, special mention should be made of Augustín Cueva, El proceso de dominación politica en el Ecuador (Quito, 1982; rev. ed., 1988), an essay of interpretation on political and social development in the country in the twentieth century. See also A. Cueva, ‘Ecuador, 1925 1975’, in America Latina, historia de medio siglo, ed. Pablo González Casanova (Mexico, D.F., 1977). Also widely distributed is a reader published by the Instituto de Investigaciones Económicas of the Universidad Central, three articles of which are about the twentieth century: Leonardo Mejía et al., Ecuador: Pasado y presente (Quito, 1975). Osvaldo Hurtado, El poder político en el Ecuador (Quito, 1977); Eng. trans., Political Power in Ecuador (Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1980), emphasizes the socio-political process since 1950.

Volume 6 of Joaquim Veríssimo Serrão, História de Portugal, 12 vols. (Lisbon, 1977–90) is a conservative view of the period and includes extensive bibliographical notes. Other general histories of the period, such as Fortunato de Almeida, História de Portugal, IV (1580–1816) (Coimbra, 1926), and Damião Peres (ed.), História de Portugal, 8 vols. (Barcelos, 1928–38), are badly dated but can still be profitably consulted for some subjects. Although uneven in quality, there are many informative essays in Joel Serrão (ed.), Dicionário de história de Portugal, 4 vols. (Lisbon, 1962–71). For more specialized studies of Portugal under Pombal and his successors, see essay III: 3. For nearly a century and a half the classic history of colonial Brazil has been Francisco Adolfo de Varnhagen, História geral do Brasil, 9th ed., 5 vols. (São Paulo, 1975). While it remains worth consulting because of the sources utilized by the author and added to by subsequent editors, it is unsatisfactory as a synthesis for this period because of its defective organization. More readable is the fourth volume of Pedro Calmon, História do Brasil, 7 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1959), but the treatment of the post-1750 years in Sérgio Buarque de Holanda (ed.), História geral da civilização brasileira, I, A época colonial, 2 vols. (São Paulo, 1960), is woefully incomplete and disappointing. Far superior, though encyclopaedic, is Maria Beatriz Nizza da Silva et al., 0 império luso-brasileiro, 1750–1822, vol. 8 of Joel Serrão and A. H. Oliveira Marques (eds.), Nova história da expansão portuguêsa (Lisbon, 1986). The major interpretive analysis remains Caio Prado Júnior, The Colonial Background of Modern Brazil, translated by Suzette Macedo (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1967), first published in Portuguese more than four decades ago.

Several of the major sixteenth-century European chroniclers of Spanish exploration and settlement in the New World provide primary material concerning the native customs of the Greater Antilles, northern Venezuela, the northern half of Colombia and lower Central America. The following sources are, therefore, fundamental to any ethnohistorical research concerning the Caribbean and circum-Caribbean: Pietro Martire d’Anghiera, De Orbe Novo, available in two volumes in English translation by Francis Augustus MacNutt under the title De Orbe Novo, The Eight Decades of Peter Martyr d’Anghera (New York, 1912); Bartolomé de Las Casas, Historia de las Indias, edited in three volumes by Agustín Millares Carlo (Mexico, D.F., 1951); Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdéz, Historia general y natural de las Indias, 5 vols. (1851–5; Madrid, 1959), and, by the same author, Sumario de la natural historia de las Indias (1526; Mexico, D.F., 1950), translated into English and edited by Sterling A. Stoudemire as Natural History of the West Indies (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1959). Historie del S.D. Fernando Colombo (Venice, 1571), also published by Ramón Iglesia as Vida del Almirante Don Cristóbal Colón (Mexico, D.F., 1947), should also be consulted, particularly for the Greater Antilles and lower Central America. This record of Columbus’s voyages has been translated into English by Benjamin Keen as The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus by his Son, Ferdinand (New Brunswick, N.J., 1959).

A recent magazine article evokes the perennial mystery of human desire by asking why a movie star who “has it all” - “a perfect body, happy marriage, wealth,” and “success” - is “not yet satisfied.” Beginning with a play of words, “Why Demi Moore Wants More,” the article ends by finding the word more “elusive.” This elusive more is the subject of my essay, which links a desire for more to determinism as a doctrine of causation common to literary naturalism, behavioral psychology, modern advertising, and consumerism. Once consumption figures in a discussion of literary naturalism, at issue in this essay, the lines of argument move centrifugally in various directions to include such seemingly far-flung and unrelated matters as the Vietnam War, kleptomania, the “packaging”of American politics, women's fashion, material culture studies, fitness diets, images of burning bodies, the commodification of books, Jane Fonda's self-transformations, and indecent proposals to Demi Moore. All these matters converge at a single point of origin where a woman character, an American literary heroine, stands and looks.

Every reader has noticed how often Walt Whitman says I. There are few pages of Leaves of Grass without at least some form of the first-person pronoun - I, me, mine, my, myself. Nor is there any hint of an apology in his acknowledgment of this fact: “I know perfectly well my own egotism . . . and cannot say any less.” Yet I is not the pronoun that most markedly distinguishes Whitman's poetry (as C. Carroll Hollis has calculated, for example, “on a percentage basis Dickinson uses even more”). You is. Whitman doesn't say you as often as he says I, but he does use the second-person pronoun more pervasively than any other major poet. Even the assertion of his own egotism that I've just quoted is embedded in a larger thought that reveals the interdependence of his authorial I and the you of his reader:

To describe this awareness of and address to the reader, Hollis borrows a term from modern linguistics and calls it Whitman's “illocutionary” stance. Ezra Greenspan borrows a term from classical grammar and calls it Whitman's “vocative technique.” A more colloquial way to indicate the crucial place you occupies in many of Whitman's poems is to say that they are performances. Whitman put it still more colloquially when he wrote in a notebook: “All my poems do. All I write I write to arouse in you a great personality.” Of course, as performances they were enacted imaginatively rather than literally. Despite Whitman's fantasies about being a national orator, speaking from real stages to packed houses, he seldom performed in front of live audiences.

The only one-volume history of Colombia in English is David Bushnell, The Making of Modern Colombia: A Nation in Spite of Itself (Berkeley, 1993). One useful volume which embodies recent trends in the historiography is Darío Jaramillo Agudelo (comp.), La nueva historia de Colombia (Bogotá, 1976). This is complemented by Jaime Jaramillo Uribe et al., Manual de historia de Colombia, vol. 3 (Bogotá, 1982), and a contemporary reader, Mario Arrubla et al., Colombia: Hoy, 2nd ed. (Bogoté, 1978).

politics and society

On the politics of the 1930s and 1940s, see Daniel Pécaut, L’Ordre et la violence: Evolution socio-politique de la Colombie entre 1930 et 1953 (Paris, 1986); Christopher Abel, Política, iglesia y partidos en Colombia, 1886–1953 (Bogotá, 1987); and Terrence Burns Horgan, ‘The Liberals come to power, por debajo de la ruana: A study of the Enrique Olaya Herrera administration, 1930-1934’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Vanderbilt University, 1983). Alvaro Tirado Mejía, Aspectos políticos del primer gobierno de Alfonso López Pumarejo, 1934–1938 (Bogotá, 1981), is a valuable introduction from a committed lopista perspective. On the economy, there are Rosemary Thorp and Carlos Londoño, ‘The effect of the Great Depression on the economies of Peru and Colombia’, and José Antonio Ocampo, ‘The Colombian economy in the 1930s’, in Rosemary Thorp (ed.), Latin America in the 1930s: The Role of the Periphery in World Crisis (London, 1984), which should be read with José Antonio Ocampo and Santiago Montenegro, Crisis mundial, protectión e industrializatión: Ensayos de historia economíca colombiana (Bogotá, 1984), Alvaro Tirado Mejía (ed.). Estado y economia (Bogotá, 1986) and Paul W. Drake, The Money Doctor in the Andes: The Kemmerer Missions, 1923–1933 (Durham, N.C., 1989).

A comprehensive bibliography dealing with the archaeology and ethno-history of Mesoamerica and the north of Mexico has been prepared by Ignacio Bernal, Bibliografia de arqueología y etnografía de Mesoamérica y norte de México, 1514–1960 (Mexico, D.F., 1962). Descriptions of many of the extant indigenous sources, i.e. pictorial manuscripts and others in the native historical tradition, are provided by John B. Glass, Donald Robertson, Charles Gibson and Henry B. Nicholson in a series of articles in volumes 14 and 15 (1975), edited by Howard F. Cline, of the Handbook of Middle American Indians, ed. Robert Wauchope, 16 vols. (Austin, Tex., 1964–76). An invaluable reference work, giving a chronology of Nahuatl scholarship from 1546 to 1980 and a catalogue of Nahuatl printed works (some 2, 961 items), has been assembled by Ascensión H. de León-Portilla, Tepuztlahcuilolli: Impresos en náhuatl: Historia y bibliografía, 2 vols. (Mexico, D.F., 1988). An indispensable guide to Nahuatl manuscripts in the Newberry Library, Chicago, the Latin American Library of Tulane University and the Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley, is provided by John Frederick Schwaller in Estudios de cultura náhuatl, 18 (1986), 315–83. On Nahuatl manuscripts in the John Carter Brown Library, Providence, Rhode Island, and the Nettie Lee Benson Latin American Collection at the University of Texas at Austin, see Estudios de cultura náhuatl, 21 (1991), 311–38.