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41755 results in Collections

Page 2004 of 2088

  • Introduction

  • Edited by A. D. Roberts
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of Africa
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    24 July 1986, pp 1-23

  • Summary

    The period surveyed in this volume spanned the culmination of European power in Africa; it was also a crucial phase in the tutelage of Africans. In 1905 the subjection of Africa to alien rule was almost complete; in the 1940s, opposition to colonial rule gathered pace so fast, both within and outside Africa, that the Second World War can well be regarded as opening a new period. Between these dates, the history of Africa was more obviously being made by Europeans than by Africans. In retrospect, our period might seem to mark a pause between power-struggles, significant mainly as a prelude to Africa's coming-of-age. It is hoped that this volume will reveal more arresting perspectives; it has been written in the belief that the economic, social and cultural changes of the period are intrinsically as important and interesting as any in the history of Africa. Yet it remains true that these changes were due above all to external initiatives which greatly enlarged the fields of action and communication within Africa.

    This consideration has determined the plan of this volume. Two-thirds consist of chapters devoted to the history of various regions, and these have been defined in terms of imperial frontiers. For English-speaking and French-speaking Africa such definition is relatively straightforward. The Portuguese territories were widely separated and closely involved with adjacent parts of other empires, but the distinctive nature of Portugal's relationship to Africa makes it analytically useful, as well as convenient, to discuss them within a common framework. Germany, however, lost its colonies in the First World War; they became international mandates, and they are treated in the chapters dealing with adjacent territories under the control of the relevant mandatory power.

  • 8 - The growth of the academic community 1912–1949

  • Edited by John K. Fairbank, Albert Feuerwerker
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of China
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    24 July 1986, pp 361-420

  • Summary

    This chapter focuses on the academic community and its institutional achievements in the first half of the twentieth century. It discusses the unexplored story with three main facets. First, China's intellectual history has outpaced her institutional history, and as known more about the late Ch'ing schools of Neo-Confucian thought, the Sung and Han learning, New Text and Old Text scholarship, even the T'ung-ch'eng school, than one does about the network of academies, libraries, printing shops and patrons that sustained Confucian scholarship. Second, in China's relations with Japan, politics has thus far eclipsed the academic story. Most of the thousands of Chinese students who went to Tokyo returned to careers of service in their homeland; not all by any means became revolutionaries. Third, the educational influences streaming into China from Europe and America constitute a vast terrain of unimaginable variety and unexplored proportions. Nearly all the nations and all the disciplines were involved in this largest of all cultural migrations.

  • Bibliographical Essays

  • Edited by John K. Fairbank, Albert Feuerwerker
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of China
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    24 July 1986, pp 871-907

  • Summary

    This bibliography contains a list of reference materials and works related to the history of China. In the growing flood of publication on modern Chinese history, especially from the PRC, research aids and documentary materials seem to be increasing even faster than historical studies that make use of them. In recent years contact and exchange among historians of China have increased rapidly between the three major sinological areas of China, Japan and the Atlantic community, but less rapidly with the fourth major area, the Soviet Union. Unfortunately, there are few monographs dealing with China's own foreign policy in the 1930s. This in part reflects the paucity of documentation, but also the scholars' predominant interest in examining Chinese domestic politics, in particular Nationalist-Communist relations. The anomaly of studying Chinese foreign affairs mostly through Japanese and Western sources will someday be rectified.

  • 3 - Nationalist China during the Nanking decade 1927–1937

  • Edited by John K. Fairbank, Albert Feuerwerker
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of China
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    24 July 1986, pp 116-167

  • Summary

    To many Chinese, Nationalist rule marked the beginning of a new era, when China would again be unified and strong, when there would be economic plenty for all, and when they would no longer feel shame at being Chinese. In September 1927, representatives of the Nanking and Hankow governments and of the Western Hills faction formed a 'Central Special Committee' which established a new, supposedly unified, Nationalist government at Nanking. This new government was no more stable than its predecessors. The two most powerful leaders in the Nationalist movement, Chiang Kai-shek and Wang Ching-wei, had been excluded from it. Under Chiang's aegis, the Nationalist government in Nanking was transformed into a military dictatorship. The Kuomintang membership by 1927 had become intolerably disparate, and Chiang Kai-shek accordingly began to screen out many of the members that to him appeared to be undesirables. In the process, he fundamentally altered the character of the Nationalist movement.

  • 4 - The Communist movement 1927–1937

  • Edited by John K. Fairbank, Albert Feuerwerker
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of China
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    24 July 1986, pp 168-229

  • Summary

    The decade between the first and second united fronts, from the KMT-CCP break-up in mid-1927 to mid-1937, was a time of disaster, trial and tribulation for the Communist movement that brought it close to extinction. By the end of 1927 there appeared clearly two streams of communism in China - the rural Soviets and the urban leadership; the former had to be led by the latter, else the whole movement might have sunk into the traditional pattern of Chinese peasant rebellions. The theoretical framework of the CCP's strategy in this period was laid out in Wang Ming's famous pamphlet, The two lines, of July 1931 which made much of the crisis of postwar capitalism in its third stage of development, when the contradictions among imperialist powers became increasingly acute. Since the creation of the rural Soviets, tension as well as cooperation had developed between the 'white area' work and the land revolution.

  • 11 - Southern Africa

  • Edited by A. D. Roberts
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of Africa
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    24 July 1986, pp 544-601

  • Summary

    Geographically, southern Africa encompasses huge contrasts. Its watershed, the Drakensberg range, falls abruptly to the east coast and causes monsoon rains to fall over Natal and the eastern Cape. The general election in 1910 brought into power a government headed by General Botha of the Transvaal. The most important way in which the government subsidised white enterprise was by helping to mobilise African labour while keeping down its price. In August 1914 the First World War broke out. South Africa, with a German colony on its borders, was at once involved, and the war aggravated the tensions within the Afrikaner community. Between August and October 1915 a contingent of white South Africans left for the Western Front. The middle and later 1920s were a period of slow growth in the South African economy. Goldmining became more important than ever to the country's economy.

  • 13 - East Africa

  • Edited by A. D. Roberts
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of Africa
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    24 July 1986, pp 649-701

  • Summary

    By 1905, the British and the Germans had occupied several strategic points in East Africa. The expansion of trade in the nineteenth century quickened the flow of Arab immigrants and also prompted Indian traders to settle among the black, and mostly Muslim, Swahili-speakers of the East African littoral. Between 1905 and the outbreak of the First World War, the colonial governments in East Africa extended their grasp over most of the region. In 1905 Uganda and the East Africa Protectorate were transferred from the care of the Foreign Office to that of the Colonial Office. Up to 1914, the exports of Uganda and the East Africa Protectorate came almost entirely from African producers. The depression halted the net growth of the European community, but emigration was offset by a continuing influx of German smallholders, which in turn reinforced the solidarity of British officials and settlers.

  • 9 - Belgian Africa

  • Edited by A. D. Roberts
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of Africa
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    24 July 1986, pp 460-493

  • Summary

    In 1908 the Belgian state took over from Leopold II responsibility for the former Congo Independent State. This huge territory encompassed great ecological contrasts: savanna and woodland in the north and south, equatorial rainforest in the centre, and high mountains and plateaux in the east and south-east. In Belgian Africa the legislative and executive powers were not responsible to the society they governed: this was as true of Belgian settlers as of Africans. The First World War profoundly altered the relationship between Belgium and the Belgian Congo. Belgium herself was almost entirely occupied by Germany throughout the war; her colony took on a vital strategic role. Belgian capital took advantage of the transfer at par of a weak currency into an expanding economy, and realised profits in a strong currency. It was African farmers who suffered most from the depression. By 1935 prices paid to cash-crop producers were about half what they had been in 1929.

  • 11 - Nationalist China during the Sino-Japanese War 1937–1945

  • Edited by John K. Fairbank, Albert Feuerwerker
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of China
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    24 July 1986, pp 547-608

  • Summary

    The war with Japan was surely the most momentous event in the history of the Republican era in China. During the Nanking decade, Chiang had particularly stressed modernization of the armed forces. Most dramatic of Nationalist China's several acts of wartime mobilization was the removal of population, government, schools and factories from the coastal areas to the interior. General Wedemeyer similarly insisted that ' the Nationalist Government of China, far from being reluctant to fight as pictured by Stilwell and some of his friends among the American correspondents, had shown amazing tenacity and endurance in resisting Japan', whereas 'no communist Chinese forces fought in any of the major engagements of the Sino-Japanese war'. The Ichigo offensive had inflicted terrible losses upon Nationalist China. The demoralization of Nationalist China was largely due to the corrosive effects of inflation and the changing political and military aims of the government.

  • 10 - Portuguese Africa

  • Edited by A. D. Roberts
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of Africa
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    24 July 1986, pp 494-543

  • Summary

    At the beginning of the twentieth century Portugal was an underdeveloped country whose economy was perhaps as typical of the Africa she was purporting to civilise as of Europe. Idealism is a marked trait in Portuguese political thought. In 1908, British and South African capital established the Nyassa Consolidated company, which took control of the chartered company and provided it with funds. The aim of this consortium was to obtain contract labour for South Africa. After 1910, when Angola temporarily suspended the recruitment of labour for planters in São Tomé, the latter had been allowed to recruit labourers in Mozambique. By the end of the nineteenth century São Tomé and Principe were mainly devoted to the production of cocoa and coffee. The influence of the Cape Verde islands continued to be more important than that of Portugal. Many poor Cape Verdeans came to Guiné to plant gardens or become artisans, while the administration was also largely staffed by islanders.

  • 5 - African cross-currents

  • Edited by A. D. Roberts
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of Africa
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    24 July 1986, pp 223-266

  • Summary

    This chapter describes the circulation of ideas among Africans south of the Sahara, and explores those ideas which travelled across the frontiers. The great expansion of trade in much of sub-Saharan Africa during the nineteenth century had caused free Africans to move further from home than ever before. Languages were learned, and some, such as Hausa, Swahili or Lingala, became lingua francas. Religious cults acquired new followings; wars of conquest extended fields of political allegiance. Colonial conditions generated new routes for the circulation of people and ideas; they also fostered new channels of expression. Colonial rule and capitalism created opportunities for some, but for many they disrupted accustomed ways of earning a livelihood; they spread disease and aggravated jealousy and greed. Christianity claimed to offer salvation to all, but in practice could easily seem indifferent to African worries, contemptuous of African custom, and preoccupied with perpetuating white domination.

  • 12 - The Chinese Communist movement during the Sino-Japanese War 1937–1945

  • Edited by John K. Fairbank, Albert Feuerwerker
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of China
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    24 July 1986, pp 609-722

  • Summary

    The three periods, 1937-8, 1939-43, and 1944-5 were the principal phases of the Communist movement during the Sino-Japanese War. The outbreak of war transformed the political and military environment for all Chinese parties and forced the Chinese Communists into fundamental reconsideration of all important policies, of strategy and of tactics. The principal issues confronting Party Central during the first year and a half of the war were the following: The united front; Military strategy and tactics; and Leaders and leadership. At the outbreak of the war, Mao Tse-tung's position in the Chinese Communist movement was that of primus inter pares. The Communists used the euphemism ' friction' to describe their conflicts with the Nationalists during the middle years of the war. Chinese Communist Party and its principal armies expanded greatly during the Sino-Japanese War. The Japanese were preparing for their greatest military offensive in China since 1937-8, Operation Ichigo.

  • 2 - Aspects of economic history

  • Edited by A. D. Roberts
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of Africa
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    24 July 1986, pp 77-139

  • Summary

    This chapter summarises the economic changes that took place in Africa. Half a century or more of active 'legitimate' commerce had pre-adapted the peoples of West Africa in varying degrees to the twentieth-century type of exchange economy. Gold production in South Africa represented over half of the world output in the 1920s, though it declined to about a third in the next decade. In East Africa, moreover, European artisans and small traders were confronted by unbeatable Asian competitors. The forced cultivation of cotton by peasant farmers in German East Africa was the trigger for the great Maji Maji revolt at the beginning of post-war period. Extension of the market had greatly enhanced the value of the marginal product of Africa's land and labour, but physical productivity had hardly altered. The ox-drawn plough had been widely adopted by African farmers in South Africa, but elsewhere they had rarely found it feasible or profitable.

  • 7 - French black Africa

  • Edited by A. D. Roberts
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of Africa
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    24 July 1986, pp 329-398

  • Summary

    The partition of Africa had left France in nominal possession of most of the region between the Sahara and the Congo river. The main lines of economic strategy had been shaped by the 'colonial party', a parliamentary cross-section of diverse elements. On 3 August 1914 Germany declared war on France; the next day, Britain declared war on Germany. In Togo, the conflict was soon over. As to the overall demographic effects of famine and disease in French black Africa, it is reasonably clear that total population declined between 1900 and 1910. The economic boom had contradictory results in France and Africa. While colonial firms made swift progress, Africans endured harsh exploitation without benefiting from the dynamic effects of inflation. The traumatic experience of the First World War and the profound upheavals caused by the depression had transformed the relations of French Africa with the outside world and had accordingly modified its internal structures.

  • 15 - Egypt and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

  • Edited by A. D. Roberts
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of Africa
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    24 July 1986, pp 742-787

  • Summary

    The importance of Egypt to Britain's world power seemed to increase with each year of occupation, and was formally recognised in the Entente Cordiale of 1904. The development of Egyptian politics between 1905 and the outbreak of the First World War was frustrated by a lack of unity in the face of the all-pervasive fact of British occupation, and by a lack of mass involvement. Egypt became a base for large Allied armies, the presence of which produced economic dislocation and its inevitable social consequences. The suppression of the 1919 revolt was followed by a period of Anglo-Egyptian negotiations. But the aims of British imperialism and Egyptian nationalism were incompatible, and Zaghlūl barred the way of agreement between the British and any Egyptian ministry. After about 1920, the British rulers of the Sudan became intensely concerned to control its long-term socio-political development.

  • 12 - British Central Africa

  • Edited by A. D. Roberts
  • Book:
    The Cambridge History of Africa
    Published online:
    28 March 2008
    Print publication:
    24 July 1986, pp 602-648

  • Summary

    At the beginning of the twentieth century the main engine of change in Central Africa was the British South Africa Company, founded by Cecil Rhodes. In 1889 it had received from the British government a charter to exercise powers of administration in the region. The birth of the new economy was associated with the emergence of new forms of racial and social division. For the infant settler communities, racial dominance was as much a matter of economic necessity as of cultural preference. The intensity and persistence of the First World War affected families far from the battle-front. As the price of imported goods became prohibitive, bark cloth replaced mass-produced textiles in many homes and locally smelted hoes reappeared. In the decade before 1923 the main issue of white politics in the Rhodesias was the creation of a new form of government to replace chartered company rule.

Page 2004 of 2088