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2144 results in Cambridge Elements

Page 21 of 108

Willingness to Communicate in a Second Language

Willingness to Communicate in a Second Language
  • Jian-E Peng
  • Published online:
    25 December 2024
    Print publication:
    06 February 2025
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  • This Element offers a review of advancements in willingness to communicate (WTC) in a second language (L2) over the past twenty-five years. It begins with the origin of the concept of WTC in first language (L1) communication research and the seminal and novel conceptualizations of WTC in the L2 context. This Element then categorizes six key perspectives that have informed WTC research: social psychological, cultural, dynamic, ecological, multimodal, and digital. By analyzing representative studies, it elucidates insights gained from these perspectives. The Element then discusses key factors associated with WTC, including individual attributes, situational factors, and outcome factors. This is followed by an overview of and critical commentary on methodological approaches in WTC research. Implications for enhancing L2 learners' WTC in in-class, out-of-class, and digital contexts are discussed. The Element concludes by proposing important venues for future WTC research. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.
Digital Assets

Digital Assets
  • A Portfolio Perspective
  • Henrique Schneider
  • Published online:
    19 December 2024
    Print publication:
    19 December 2024
  • From the perspective of an investor, digital assets are an alternative class of assets. They have several features that differentiate them from traditional investments. This makes them well-suited for a diversified portfolio. The question is how to accommodate them in such a portfolio, how to manage their potential and risk, and how to evaluate them. This short book explains how to include digital assets is a diversified portfolio. It focuses on their differentiating use cases, their idiosyncracies, and how they relate to other types of investment. This is a volume for practitioners and students in finance, asset management, or portfolio construction.
Contemplation and Civic Happiness in Plato and Aristotle

Contemplation and Civic Happiness in Plato and Aristotle
  • Dominic Scott
  • Published online:
    19 December 2024
    Print publication:
    19 December 2024
  • This Element concerns the civic value of contemplation in Plato and Aristotle: how does intellectual contemplation contribute to the happiness of the ideal state? The texts discussed include the Republic, the Nicomachean Ethics and the Politics, works in which contemplation is viewed from a political angle. The Element concludes that in the Republic contemplation has purely instrumental value, whereas in the Politics and Nicomachean Ethics it has purely intrinsic value. To do justice to the complexity of the issues involved, the author addresses a broader question about the nature of civic happiness: whether it is merely the aggregate of individual happiness or an organic quality that arises from the structure of the state. Answering this question has implications for how contemplation contributes to civic happiness. The Element also discusses how many citizens Plato and Aristotle expected to be engaged in contemplation in the ideal state.
Extensive Reading

Extensive Reading
  • Jing Zhou
  • Published online:
    19 December 2024
    Print publication:
    19 December 2024
  • This Element focuses on extensive reading (ER), a language learning and teaching approach that encourages language learners to read a large amount of interesting and level-appropriate reading materials. Extensive reading has been adopted across educational spectrums, including higher, secondary, and elementary levels, and implemented in diverse language contexts such as English, Chinese, Italian, Spanish, and French. The primary objective of this Element is to offer comprehensive insights into the theoretical foundations of ER, analyze its multifaceted benefits to language learning, address the challenges encountered in its implementation, and propose effective strategies drawn from research for these challenges. The Element concludes with an overview of the latest trends and developments in ER.
Monotheism and Paradise

Monotheism and Paradise
  • Caitlin Smith Gilson
  • Published online:
    19 December 2024
    Print publication:
    19 December 2024
  • This Element will provide an essential tracing of selected Greek views of the afterlife which engage in dynamic tension with the Christian understanding of Paradise as fulfilled in the Resurrected state. The main three sections in this Element are Ideas of the Afterlife in the Greek Tragedians; Plato: The Difficulty of Paradise; and Holiness and Violence: A Christian View of the Resurrected State. The imposition of justice and the expiation of guilt through suffering are necessary prerequisites to our approach to the relationship between Monotheism and Paradise. Additional discussions will focus on weak theology and of a God not transcendent enough to ensure the desire for Heaven. As such, the sections are organized to isolate and trace this thread.
Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses
  • Jolene Chu, Ollimatti Peltonen
  • Published online:
    18 December 2024
    Print publication:
    30 January 2025
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  • Jehovah's Witnesses began as an informal Bible study group in the 1870s that sought to recover first-century Christian beliefs and practices. They disseminated literature announcing the expected reign of God's Kingdom and called themselves Bible Students. In 1931, they adopted the name Jehovah's Witnesses, epitomizing their belief in the Christian obligation to preach the gospel worldwide. Known for their ethic of nonviolence and their evangelizing work, and despite worshipping freely in most countries, Witnesses are subject to controversy, particularly vis-à-vis mainstream Christianity, the State, and secularized societies. The authors are practicing Jehovah's Witnesses who present this work as neither apologia nor official account, but as an emic description of the history, beliefs, identity, and organizational structure of Witnesses, and their societal interactions. While briefly covering main controversies, this Element focuses on the culture and lived experience of the millions comprising the Witness community. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.
Comedy and Controversy

Comedy and Controversy
  • Scripting Public Speech
  • Sarah Balkin, Marc Mierowsky
  • Published online:
    18 December 2024
    Print publication:
    30 January 2025
  • This is an Element book about stand-up comedy and public speech. It focuses on the controversies generated when the distinction between the two breaks down, when stand-upenters – or is pushed – into the public sphere and is interpreted according to the scripts that govern popular political and media rhetoric rather than the traditional generic conventions of comic performance. These controversies raise a larger set of questions about the comedian's public role. They draw attention to the intention of jokes and their effects in the world. And they force us to consider how the limits of comic performance – what can be said, by whom, and why – respond to, and can reshape, public discourse across changing media contexts.
Constructions and Compositionality

Constructions and Compositionality
  • Cognitive and Computational Explorations
  • Giulia Rambelli
  • Published online:
    17 December 2024
    Print publication:
    30 January 2025
  • How do we understand any sentence, from the most ordinary to the most creative? The traditional assumption is that we rely on formal rules combining words (compositionality). However, psycho- and neuro-linguistic studies point to a linguistic representation model that aligns with the assumptions of Construction Grammar: there is no sharp boundary between stored sequences and productive patterns. Evidence suggests that interpretation alternates compositional (incremental) and noncompositional (global) strategies. Accordingly, systematic processes of language productivity are explainable by analogical inferences rather than compositional operations: novel expressions are understood 'on the fly' by analogy with familiar ones. This Element discusses compositionality, alternative mechanisms in language processing, and explains why Construction Grammar is the most suitable approach for formalizing language comprehension.
Crisis Policymaking in the EU

Crisis Policymaking in the EU
  • The COVID-19 Crisis and the Refugee Crisis 2015-16 Compared
  • Hanspeter Kriesi
  • Published online:
    16 December 2024
    Print publication:
    02 January 2025
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  • This Element compares crisis-specific policymaking, its causes and consequences, at the two levels of the EU polity during the COVID-19 and the refugee crisis 2015–16. In both crises, EU policymaking responded to exogenous pressure and was dominated by executive decision-making. Still, it also differed in three critical aspects: it was much more salient, consensual, and effective during the COVID-19 than the refugee crisis. The present study accounts for both similarities and differences, which it attempts to explain by features of the nature of the crises. The key argument of the study is that the policymaking process during crises is, to a large extent, determined by the crisis situation – the crisis-specific functional problem pressure, the institutional context (of the EU polity), and the corresponding political pressure at the origin of a given crisis. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.
The Logic of Grounding

The Logic of Grounding
  • Fabrice Correia
  • Published online:
    16 December 2024
    Print publication:
    16 January 2025
  • The concept of grounding – of a fact obtaining in virtue of other facts – has been a topic of intensive philosophical and logical investigation over roughly the past two decades. Many philosophers take grounding to deserve a central place in metaphysical theorizing, in great part because it is thought to do a better job than other concepts – e.g., reduction and supervenience – at capturing certain phenomena. Studies on the logic of grounding have largely been conducted with this philosophical background in mind. In this Element, I try to give a faithful picture of the contemporary development of the logic of grounding in a way that is both reasonably comprehensive and reasonably systematic.
Women, Gender, and Rebel Governance during Civil Wars

Women, Gender, and Rebel Governance during Civil Wars
  • Meredith Maloof Loken
  • Published online:
    16 December 2024
    Print publication:
    02 January 2025
  • How is rebel governance gendered, and how does women's participation in rebellion affect the development and execution of governance programs? The author develops a framework for evaluating and explaining rebel governance's gendered dynamics, identifying four areas where attention to women and to gender helps us better understand these institutions: recruitment and internal organization, program expansion, development of new projects, and multi-layered governance relationships. They explore the context and significance of these dynamics using cross-conflict data on rebel governance institutions and women's participation as well as qualitative evidence from three diverse organizations. They suggest that it is not only the fact of women's participation that matters but the gendered nature of social and political relationships that help explain how rebels govern during civil wars. They show how women's involvement can shape governance content and implementation and how their participation may help rebel groups expand projects and engage with civilian communities.
Semantics and Deep Learning

Semantics and Deep Learning
  • Lasha Abzianidze, Lisa Bylinina, Denis Paperno
  • Published online:
    16 December 2024
    Print publication:
    16 January 2025
  • This Element covers the interaction of two research areas: linguistic semantics and deep learning. It focuses on three phenomena central to natural language interpretation: reasoning and inference; compositionality; extralinguistic grounding. Representation of these phenomena in recent neural models is discussed, along with the quality of these representations and ways to evaluate them (datasets, tests, measures). The Element closes with suggestions on possible deeper interactions between theoretical semantics and language technology based on deep learning models.
Worked Bone, Antler, Ivory, and Keratinous Materials

Worked Bone, Antler, Ivory, and Keratinous Materials
  • Adam DiBattista
  • Published online:
    16 December 2024
    Print publication:
    16 January 2025
  • This Element addresses the study and documentation of objects made from the durable materials of animal bodies, including bone, antler, ivory, and keratinous tissues. This category of artifacts is common across cultures and regions, yet often escapes close study. The Element aims to be a guide to understanding and documenting worked animal objects for those without a background in zooarchaeology or experience with such artifacts. This Element provides a means of identifying and distinguishing animal materials by emphasizing the value of caution and making full documentation of all observations. Using illustrations and descriptions to help researchers understand the structure of these materials, the volume introduces the terminology and diagnostic factors that differentiate animal materials. It also outlines the techniques craftspeople used to modify animal materials in the past. Finally, this Element presents recording strategies for individuals wishing to study assemblages from archaeological excavations.
Embodiment, Dependence, and God

Embodiment, Dependence, and God
  • Kevin Timpe
  • Published online:
    15 December 2024
    Print publication:
    19 December 2024
  • The significance of our physical bodies is an important topic in contemporary philosophy and theology. Reflection on the body often assumes, even if only implicitly, idealizations that obscure important facts about what it means for humans to be 'enfleshed.' This Element explores a number of ways that reflection on bodies in their concrete particularities is important. It begins with a consideration of why certain forms of idealization are philosophically problematic. It then explores how a number of features of bodies can reveal important truths about human nature, embodiment, and dependence. Careful reflection on the body raises important questions related to community and interdependence. The Element concludes by exploring the ethical demands we face given human embodiment. Among other results, this Element exposes the reader to a wide diversity of human embodiment and the nature of human dependence, encouraging meaningful theological reflection on aspects of the human condition.
Religious Trauma

Religious Trauma
  • Michelle Panchuk
  • Published online:
    13 December 2024
    Print publication:
    16 January 2025
  • When religion is the site of abuse and trauma, it can deeply impact a person's ability to relate to God and engage in spiritual practice. As such, religious trauma is ripe for philosophical exploration. Section 1 of this Element provides a brief history of the concept of psychological trauma, contemporary accounts of its neurobiological basis, and its impact on human agency. Section 2 sketches a model of religious trauma through the first-person narratives of survivors and emerging psychological data. Section 3 explores the social epistemology of religious trauma, focusing on how failures of knowledge create space for religious abuse and the insights of survivors may help communities guard against it. The last two sections consider three perennial topics in philosophy of religion from the perspective of religious trauma: the problem of evil, the problem of divine hiddenness, and religious experience.
Cross-Cultural Collaboration in Popular Music

Cross-Cultural Collaboration in Popular Music
  • Practice-Based Research
  • Toby Martin, Seyed MohammadReza Beladi, Đăng Lan
  • Published online:
    13 December 2024
    Print publication:
    16 January 2025
  • Cross-cultural collaboration in popular music represents opportunities for the audibility of multiple voices and the creation of new sounds, but it also presents many challenges. These challenges are both musical – that is, how to technically match voices – and ethical – that is, how to negotiate historically entrenched power discrepancies. Practice-based research has recently developed as a field in popular music studies. This burgeoning area has much to offer in terms of new knowledge, based on embodied insights, lived experience, and an arts practice. Through a practitioner-centred account of three projects involving traditional Persian and Vietnamese musicians, and western folk/rock musicians, this Element suggests pragmatic strategies and conceptual frameworks for making pop music with people of different cultural backgrounds.
The Problem of Divine Personality

The Problem of Divine Personality
  • Andrew M. Bailey, Bradley Rettler
  • Published online:
    13 December 2024
    Print publication:
    30 January 2025
  • The main question of this Element is whether God has a personality. The authors show what the question means, why it matters, and that good sense can be made of an affirmative answer to it. A God with personality - complete with particular, sometimes peculiar, and even seemingly unexplainable druthers - is not at war with maximal perfection, nor is the idea irredeemably anthropomorphic. And the hypothesis of divine personality is fruitful, with substantive consequences that span philosophical theology. But problems arise here too, and new perspectives on inquiry itself. Our cosmos is blessed with weirdness aplenty. To come to know it is nothing less than to encounter a strange and untamed God.
Nietzsche on the Eternal Recurrence

Nietzsche on the Eternal Recurrence
  • Neil Sinhababu
  • Published online:
    13 December 2024
    Print publication:
    16 January 2025
  • The idea of the eternal recurrence is that we will live the exact same lives again an infinite number of times. Nietzsche appreciates that this would multiply the value of a single life by infinity, justifying intense emotional responses. His unpublished notes provide a cosmological argument for the eternal recurrence that anticipates Poincaré's recurrence theorem. Nietzsche's Thus Spoke Zarathustra describes its hero discovering this idea and struggling to accept the recurrence of all bad things. He eventually comes to love the eternal recurrence because it will bring back all the joys of his life, and teaches this idea to others.
Heidegger and Kierkegaard

Heidegger and Kierkegaard
  • George Pattison
  • Published online:
    12 December 2024
    Print publication:
    16 January 2025
  • The work examines the presence and significance of Kierkegaard in Heidegger's work. After setting out the context of Heidegger's reception of the Danish thinker and examining his likely knowledge of his writings, the work first examines key Kierkegaardian concepts that are explicitly present in Being and Time, including existence, 'idle talk' (Gerede), anxiety, the moment of vision, repetition, and the existential significance of death. It is seen that Heidegger regarded Kierkegaard as an essentially religious writer whose work was only indirectly relevant to Heidegger's own project of fundamental ontology. Subsequently, the work considers the place of Kierkegaard in Heidegger's writings from the 1930s onwards, concluding with consideration of the paper Heidegger submitted for the 1963 Paris UNESCO conference marking the 150th anniversary of Kierkegaard's thought.
Climate Activism, Digital Technologies, and Organizational Change

Climate Activism, Digital Technologies, and Organizational Change
  • Mette Eilstrup-Sangiovanni, Nina Hall
  • Published online:
    12 December 2024
    Print publication:
    02 January 2025
  • Non-governmental and civil society organizations have long been recognized as crucial players in climate politics. Today, thanks to the internet, social media, satellite, and more, climate activists are pioneering new organizational forms and strategies. Organizations like Fridays for Future, 350.org, and GetUp! have used social media and other digital platforms to mobilize millions of people. Many NGOs use digital tools to collect and analyze 'big data' on environmental factors, and to investigate and prosecute environmental crimes. Although the rise of digitally based advocacy organizations is well documented, we know less about how digital technologies are used in different aspects of climate activism, and with what effects. On this basis, we ask: how do NGOs use digital technology to campaign for climate action? What are the benefits and downsides of using technology to push for political change? To what extent does technology influence the goals activists strive for and their strategies.

Page 21 of 108