Raul “Pete” Pedrozo, Cyber Threats at Sea: Jamming and Spoofing of Commercial Vessels

Ships rely on Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), like the NAVSTAR Global Positioning Systems (GPS), for safe navigation and precise Position, Navigation, and Time (PNT). Based on satellite input, PNT enable shipboard receivers to determine location with precision. As a primary PNT source, GNSS must be accurate and protected from manipulation to ensure safe ship operations. While some GNSS interference is unintentional, threat from State and non-state actors persist. Over the past 20 years, cyberattacks on international shipping by rogue States like China, Iran, and Russia and state-sponsored hackers have increased, threatening maritime safety by disrupting navigation and communication equipment. The proliferation of GNSS interference poses a strategic threat, to global navigation safety, civilian finances, logistics, and communication. This chapter discusses GNSS threats and how States can mitigate jamming and spoofing. It examines efforts by the International Maritime Organization and shipping industry to address these threats and review United States measures to protect its maritime transportation system from cyberattacks. No single solution addresses all GNSS vulnerabilities but combining alternatives can augment GNSS and ensure resilience for critical maritime PNT operations. Regular risk assessments identify vulnerabilities and prioritize mitigation. A clear incident response plan supports cyberattacks, minimizing damage, and expedite recovery.

James Kraska and Khanssa Lagdami, What Does the Future Hold?

The contributing editors assess the future of technology and the law of the sea in light of the distribution of power and authority among flag states, port states and coastal states.

This chapter examines China’s evolving governance of international marriages through the lens of sovereign concerns, focusing on border stability, population management and national security. It explores how material and affective processes inform the regulations and representations of marriage migration to China. The discussion shows how the Chinese state continually revises its administrative and legal framework for international marriage, and also highlights the historical, racialised and gendered forces embedded in this process. The argument contends that the regulatory framework of marriage migration is shaped by shifting ‘structures of feeling’ that define belonging in Chinese society. These intersecting spheres of state affective and regulatory practices reveal new power dynamics and inequalities in China’s relations with the outside world.

Krisztina Tilinger, Blockchain and the Law of the Sea

The international law of the sea treaties imposes various obligations on contracting states, which can be managed more efficiently and cost-effectively through blockchain technology. As a disruptive tool, blockchain allows stakeholders to track transactions in a secure, cryptographically verified public database. It ensures a secure and reliable record of activities and information exchange governed by international agreements. This paper explores how the blockchain-based systems could help protect the maritime community and support sustainable ocean governance under the law of the sea. Particular attention is given to conserving marine living resources, protecting the marine environment and preserving marine biodiversity. Blockchain is already in use for some internationally regulated activities, such as electronic data interchange, though electronic permitting still waits broader international approval. Besides the clear advantages of blockchain, its legal, regulatory and other concerns must be addressed when considering its role in implementing international treaties. The author aims to explore whether harnessing blockchain`s potential requires new international agreement or if a simpler soft law instrument could provide sufficient guidance and safeguards for the international community.

Youri van Logchem, Sensor Monitoring and Reliable Telecommunications (SMART) Subsea Cables and Marine Scientific Research

Subsea cables date to the 19th century with telegraphic use and have served various roles, including military. However, they rose to prominence in communications with the Internet’s creation in 1980s. Today, global telecommunications, the Internet, and financial and security systems rely on subsea cables, which handle about 97% of international communications. A new development enhances subsea cable technology by adding oceanographic sensors to collect ocean, environment, and climate data. These are called ‘SMART (Sensor Monitoring and Reliable Telecommunications) cables. Adding monitoring to subsea cables is a cheap way to improve marine environmental understanding through data collection, transforming them into dual-purpose systems combining data gathering and telecommunications. This dual role raises legal questions—primarily whether SMART cables collecting marine data qualify as scientific research needing coastal State consent in certain maritime zones. The subsea cable industry is lukewarm on SMART cables, fearing coastal State laws may hinder operations which adds complication. Security concerns over subsea cables increases with geopolitical tensions and deliberate targeting, such as the October 2023 Baltic Connector incident. Adding new technology to an established one raises several issues. Though SMART cables offer strong scientific benefits for understanding the (marine) environment, caution is needed as legal hurdles arise.

The digital realm has become a crucial space for foreign women in China to express emotions, explore entrepreneurial ventures, and seek community and support. This chapter discusses the main themes and evolving conversations within several WeChat groups created by post-Soviet wives living in China. The chapter centres on how these women navigate both digital and physical environments while managing racialised and gendered expectations around family life and social interactions under China’s patriarchal immigration policies. I explore how personal experiences and emotions shared in one-on-one conversations echo the collective subjectivities and shared sentiments fostered within these online communities. Additionally, I consider how these online interactions reflect broader geopolitical dynamics, including national borders, racial hierarchies, citizenship laws and broader structures of feeling. These affective, networked, publics form a loosely connected web that offers the women a sense of belonging and solidarity amid the constraints of their lived circumstances.

Khanssa Lagdami, Artificial Intelligence and the Human Element in the Maritime Sector

The adoption of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the maritime sector marks a significant technological advancement with broad implications for operational efficiency, crewing, and regulatory frameworks. While these innovations are expected to enhance safety, reduce operating costs, and promote environmental sustainability, they are also likely to introduce challenges related to workforce displacement, cybersecurity, and evolving labor regulations at sea. This chapter examines the impact of AI on the maritime workforce, more specifically seafarers. It explores how AI may affect crew size, the emergence of new roles, and new skills in the future. It also offers an analysis of the significant impact of AI on working conditions and labor rights at sea under international maritime regulations, particularly the Maritime Labour Convention (MLC), 2006, and the Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers Convention (1978, STCW Convention), as amended. This chapter explores the intersection areas of AI and maritime law, focusing on the emerging regulatory frameworks, including the EU AI Act and the International Maritime Organization’s Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) Code. The findings point out that while AI presents opportunities for improving the working conditions of seafarers, its use must adhere to acceptable labor standards, legal clarity, and robust cybersecurity measures.

James Kraska, Marine Genetic Resources and National Security

The 2023 BBNJ treaty’s provisions on marine biodiversity may undermine both biological and military security, preventing states from joining the agreement. The treaty, formally titled the Agreement under UNCLOS on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction, is commonly known as the BBNJ Treaty. Adopted on June 19, 2023, it protects biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction (BBNJ). The United States signed the agreement on September 20, 2023, to expand marine-protected areas. The treaty regulates marine genetic resources (MGR), which implicates biotechnology. Biotechnology involves companies developing products from marine genetic resources. MGRs have commercial and scientific uses, including cancer treatments and drugs like remdesivir to fight COVID and azidothymidine (AZT). The treaty mandates data sharing through the “Clearing House Mechanism” (ClHM). But the treaty excludes intellectual property rights, forcing U.S. marine biotech firms to share trade secrets, benefiting foreign competitors and raising economic and security concerns. The U.S. Office of Naval Research (ONR) and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) have also disclosed high seas research programs. Amid economic competition with China, the US accelerates innovation, transparency goals clash with the prevailing imperative of security.