In this chapter, we look at some other factors as foundational to development as genetics, specifically cultural contexts. First of all, we focus on defining what is meant by culture and explaining why it is so relevant to understanding children and human development. Second, we describe Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems theory and Vygotsky’s Sociocultural theory, two of the theories that have examined more carefully the role of contexts and culture in human development. Finally, we show how human thinking is culturally shaped in the context of guided participation and apprenticeship in thinking, and present the four challenging and famous questions proposed by ethologist Niko Tinbergen to understand human behavior from a truly comprehensive point of view.

This chapter begins with an overview of the major changes in physical size and proportions and the nature of developmental changes in physical growth. We also examine factors that influence growth and discuss the problem of childhood obesity. We then shift our focus to one of the most important and drastic periods of change in the life span—adolescence and the onset of sexual maturity. We next look at aspects of children’s motor development, examining both gross and fine motor changes in children’s abilities to control their bodies. We then devote a relatively large section to the development of perhaps the body’s most important organ—at least from a psychological perspective—the brain, which is expanded in later chapters.

This introductory chapter is intended to “set the table” so to speak for the rest of the textbook. Marketing is defined as an academic discipline. The critical importance is emphasized of market segmentation and target market selection to the firm. Importantly, a new model of marketing strategy is proposed that attempts to tie everything together. As defined, marketing is critical for every firm, including distributors and retailers. Channels of distribution are described. A discussion is given on how channels help connect the firm to targeted end-customers. In addition, how channels of distribution relate to brand equity and the pricing of goods is stressed. Finally, the critical importance of the pull and push strategy is highlighted, pertaining to how this plan improves the functioning of every marketing channel of the firm.

The importance is stressed of understanding the definition of channel contracts and associated common terms. An argument is made that channel contracts are necessary in every inter-firm channel relationship. The steps taken to formulate channel contracts are presented, followed by a discussion of why alteration of contracts is often required. It is acknowledged why serious contract violations must be dealt with swiftly and effectively. The implications of major laws that apply to channel conduct are evaluated.

What conflict means as a construct is discussed. Acknowledgment is made of the main stages in the conflict process, within and between channel organizations. An analysis is undertaken of the major causes of conflict, within both direct channels and indirect channels, and how they can be reduced in magnitude. Consideration is given to how contract enforcement efforts and conflict are interconnected. It is emphasized that conflict can have both functional and dysfunctional effects, within and between organizations. An evaluation is made of how conflicts can be effectively resolved.

This chapter is mostly devoted to the development of emotion in infancy, childhood, and adolescence. We follow this with a look at the closely related topics of temperament and personality and their development. We also examine when emotions sometimes get the better of children, causing excessive stress, anxiety, and depression.

In this chapter we investigate intelligence and academic achievement. In the first major section of this chapter, we focus on the concept of IQ, the so-called psychometric approach to intelligence, and some alternatives to this approach, including Robert Sternberg’s theory of adaptive intelligence and Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. The origins and consequences of individual differences in intelligence are also examined. In the second major section of this chapter, we pay attention to the developmental, cultural, and evolutionary basis of schooling, with a particular emphasis on literacy, and numeracy, likely two of society’s most significant core academic skills.

This chapter begins by reviewing Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget’s theory. Piaget believed that the way children represent the world changes systematically between infancy and adolescence, and we describe here the main concepts and stages of his theory. We next look at theory theories of cognitive development, focusing on children’s understanding of the biological world. We conclude by looking at several expressions of symbolic functioning in children and how they change with age: symbolic play, drawing, and distinguishing between fantasy and reality.

This chapter is about the development of human language, one of the more distinctive traits of the human species. In the first two sections, we present some reflections about the nature of human language and the theories that have aimed to explain their acquisition in children to date. The core of the chapter focuses on a thorough description of the course of language development in children and adolescents according to their four most prominent aspects: phonology, semantics, grammar, and pragmatics. Finally, we present a section on atypical language development (in children with hearing, visual or intellectual impairment, and children with specific language impairment), and another section devoted to bilingualism and second-language learning.