This chapter offers an historical examination of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander healthcare from a nursing viewpoint. It considers how the current shape of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health has been formed by actions taken since European colonisation. It discusses the status of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health during different historical periods, including what is known about the pre-invasion health system and health service provision during the periods of initial contact, separation and protection. Finally, the chapter discusses the rise of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander community-controlled health system and contemporary choices for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in the delivery of healthcare and health outcomes. It further discusses the approach taken by all Australian governments of working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, communities and organisations to implement the new National Agreement on Closing the Gap at the national, state and territory, and local levels. Each section of this chapter is framed within the prism of nursing, exploring the role of nursing in health systems and the delivery of healthcare.

Introduction to Lagrange’s Equations. The static virtual work principle is used to introduce the concepts of generalized coordinates, constraint equations, and generalized forces. Lagrange’s equations are derived by application of the principle of dynamic virtual work. The derivation is restricted to unconstrained generalized coordinates, that is, situations in which there are no kinematic conditions that relate them. Lagrange’s equations are shown to lead to coupled second order, usually nonlinear, ordinary differential equations of motion. Numerous examples derive these equations for a diverse set of systems. One of these examples uses Lagrange’s equations to derive the period for precession of the equinoxes due to the gravitational pull of the Sun and the Moon. A Matlab template is presented that can be used to solve general equations of motion. It is applied to analyze the rotation of a balanced free gyroscope. The Newton-Euler equations are employed to explain the extreme sensitivity of this system to the initial conditions. This example leads to discussion of the various ways the gyroscopic effects are employed in inertial guidance systems.

This chapter concerns immunities from jurisdiction. The first example is sovereign or state immunity, which is also closely related to the concepts of non-justiciability and act of state. The chapter traces the move from absolute to restrictive immunity in this respect, both in the UK and the US, as well as other states, through the case law. This has shifted attention to the distinction between sovereign and non-sovereign acts. The question of sovereign immunity and violations of human rights is also raised. The definition of commercial acts is also addressed, as is the definition of the instrumentalities and organs of the state. Immunity for senior government figures is discussed. The chapter then turns to diplomatic immunity in the light of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations. The question of the inviolability of the mission premises is covered, as is the immunity of the diplomatic bag and the immunities of diplomatic property and personnel. The chapter concludes with a review of consular immunities.

This chapter focuses on the use of force by states. It begins with a brief survey of law and force from the era of the ‘just war’ to the rise of the United Nations. The relevant provisions of the UN Charter concerning the use of forces are then examined. In particular, the meaning of art. 2(4), which prohibits the threat or use of force against states, is discussed. The various categories of compulsion are noted, from retorsion and reprisals to the right to self-defence. The latter is carefully examined in the light of practice and art. 51 of the Charter. The use of force in self-defence against non-state actors is addressed, as is the concept of collective self-defence and intervention. The phenomenon of civil wars is noted, as is the theory of humanitarian intervention. The question of terrorism and international law is examined before the chapter turns to the issue of cyber warfare.

Australia’s First Nations peoples are a collection of multiple language groups; they are the sovereign peoples of the lands and waterways of their countries, which are now confined within the boundaries of the modern-day colonial nation-state of Australia. Torres Strait Islanders (Islanders) are a collection of First Nations peoples from the region commonly known as the Torres Strait, which for Islanders is increasingly being reclaimed and renown as Zenadth Kes. The assertion of using the local name instead of the colonial name is an exercise of sovereignty. The reclaiming of places through knowing their local name is an important part of truth-telling and decolonising Country. This chapter invites you to learn more about Zenadth Kes and the people who belong to it. Specifically, in keeping with cultural safety, this chapter aims to highlight the limitations of the colonial perceptions of Islanders. These imaginations of Islanders have historically informed what opportunities were afforded to them. This includes equitable access to health inclusive of social and cultural determinants of health, compared with that of non-Indigenous Australians.Today, Islanders reside all over Australia.

Kinematics of Constrained Rigid Bodies. Moving reference frames and Euler angles are the basic tools for describing the three dimensional movement of multi-body systems. Particular attention is paid to the connections between bodies, and how to treat the restrictions that connections place on how the system may move. Connections are shown to impose constraints on the motion, which are enforced by a corresponding constraint or reaction force. The chapter ends by showing how these tools can be applied to the case of bodies that roll relative to one another.

Further Concepts. This chapter covers alternative ways of deriving equations of motion. The first derivation is Routh’s method for eliminating excess generalized coordinates. Then Hamilton’s equations, which replace generalized velocities with generalized momenta, are derived. Kane’s equations, which replace generalized velocities with quasi-velocities, are shown to have a general form. A sequential procedure is provided to expedite derivation of Kane’s equations for a specific system. Examples use these method to derive the equations of motion, then compare the merits of that analysis to Lagrange’s equations. The last section is devoted to derivation of field equations that govern the displacement of flexible bodies. The calculus of variations is introduced as a tool for solving some classic mathematics problems. Then that capability is used to derive Hamilton’s principle. Application of this principle to a stretched cable, and a straight bar that undergoes extensional, torsional, or flexural deformation leads to identification of field equations and boundary conditions. The Ritz series approximation method is then presented, as well as its specialization to the finite element method.

This chapter concerns the international protection of human rights. It first traces the development of international human rights law from the initial positivist doctrine of strict state sovereignty to the changes wrought by the League of Nations and the minority protection and mandate regimes and to the advent of the United Nations. Basic principles such as domestic jurisdiction and the exhaustion of local remedies are noted and references are made to the COVID-19 pandemic and responses thereto. The core principles of the UN system of human rights protection are then discussed, ranging from the protection of collective rights, non-discrimination and self-determination. The UN implementation system is then examined from the various political bodies, such as the Human Rights Council to the expert bodies established by UN organs, such as the Human Rights Committee. This is followed by an examination of the range of regional human rights bodies from the European Court of Human Rights to the Inter-American Court of Human Rights and the African Court of Human and Peoples’ Rights.

In order to simulate realistic systems without overwhelming computing resources, this chapter introduces the Runge–Kutta method of integration using the deSolve package. This allows us greatly improved accuracy and speed, so we can solve dynamic models embedded within a grid of interacting cells. We use the technique to investigate nitrogen dynamics in a stream.

This chapter demonstrates the value of re-running models under different conditions, first in sensitivity analysis to investigate the contribution of different parameters to model uncertainty, and then in Monte Carlo analysis to determine how models can be used quantitatively even in the face of uncertainty in their parameters. We use examples of risk assessment in the pre-Monte Carlo world to motivate the latter. Here we return to the mosquito control model for sensitivity analysis and look at a classic paper on cancer risk for the Monte Carlo section.

This chapter introduces readers to the basics of variables and equations in R through the construction of a very simple program to convert units. It addresses dimensional analysis and basic data types, including numeric, logical, and string.

This chapter introduces collections of data types like lists, vectors, arrays, and data frames. It describes how to access and manipulate subsets of these collections, and demonstrates basic tools like finding the mean of a column or row. The motivating challenge in the chapter is basic data analysis on a small dataset.

AI has changed the process of coding in a very short time, and will have dramatic effects on how modeling is done going forward. With coding skills in hand from previous chapters, this chapter introduces readers to what AI can and cannot do currently. We demonstrate AI capabilities with a simple graphing example, and then introduce a heat-balance model of the greenhouse effect to test AI’s ability to construct general dynamic models. The results lead to a more detailed understanding of how to use AI and how to check and work with its results.

This very short chapter highlights the centrality of error testing and identification, and how consistent, error-avoiding style (things like comments, naming conventions, indentation, and so on) is critical to enable troubleshooting and functional code.