In this chapter, we examine how children come to solve problems, remember important information, and generally learn to think on their own. Most of the research and theorizing on these topics was done following the information-processing approach of cognitive development, which uses the computer as a model for how the mind works and changes with age. After reviewing briefly some assumptions of information-processing approaches, we explore the development of self-directed thinking, problem solving, and memory. We first explore how children come to use tools as an early window to problem solving. We then investigate executive functions, the basic-level cognitive abilities that are necessary for planning and self-regulation, followed by a look at slightly higher-level cognitive processes, strategies. This is followed by an examination of a special type of problem solving, reasoning (analytic and scientific), and we conclude the chapter with a discussion of children’s memory development.

This chapter attempts to distinguish the major types of distribution channels firms utilize, including distributors and retailers. Key characteristics are identified of direct channels. Then, indirect channels are detailed, including the major challenges faced in operating them. What determines whether a direct or indirect channel is chosen and implemented by the firm is explained in a clear fashion. However, that said, and in most cases, both direct and indirect channels are utilized by firms in multiple-channel distribution arrangements.

Initially, an attempt is made to provide a precise definition of channel functions, which are so vital to the firm. The tough challenge of gaining acceptable performance of work activities in all the firm’s channels is explained. Then, an analysis is presented of how new technologies can affect the processing and delivery of customer orders. Acknowledgment is made of the impact of brand positioning and value propositions on channel functions. It follows that superior performance of critical channel functions is vital to delighting targeted end-customers and a thorough explanation is given. To conclude, a discussion is provided of the role of supply chain management in the firm and the main steps necessary to be taken in the order management cycle.

Perhaps the major deciding factor in how well firms perform is their understanding of the buying behavior of targeted end-customers and how they utilize this knowledge in shaping the product, price, promotion, and, yes, place or “channels of distribution” strategic variables. In the current business environment, merely satisfying targeted end-customers is not enough. Instead, the firm must “delight” them. Clearly, a major change in targeted end-customer behavior necessitates, no doubt, a monumental change in the organization and coordination of the firm’s marketing channels. How user-generated content and other online information are influencing end-customer search is focused upon. Doing a thorough job of market segmentation is emphasized, based on the identification of relevant demographic, geo-demographic, and activity, interest, and opinion variables. Finally, the top management of the firm and all marketing and sales managers must grasp the five main stages of the buying process, as well as their many implications.

An explanation is given of what channel coordination entails and why it is so important, both internally and externally to the firm. Key coordination objectives are discussed. The importance of pull and push strategy connections to successful channel coordination efforts is stressed. Sufficient channel control is only achieved in both direct channels and indirect channels through effective coordination efforts. How power is built and applied within both direct and indirect channels is elaborated upon. Finally, an explanation is given of how manifest conflict and motivation can impact both channel functioning and subsequent end-customer behavior.

In this chapter, we first look at a new approach in how sex and gender are conceptualized, with gender no longer being viewed as a binary category (male versus female), but as including other options, such as transgender and gender nonbinary. We then briefly examine sex and gender from an evolutionary perspective, specifically parental investment theory. This is followed by a look at the development of sexuality, an individual’s erotic thoughts and activities, and then examine the origin of sexual orientation. We then look briefly at some gender differences and how such differences can be explained. (Most gender differences have been discussed in the chapters in which the specific content is examined.) The final section looks at the development of gender identity, focusing mainly on the cognitive factors that affect how children come to see themselves as males and females, followed by an examination of gender identification in transgender children.

In this chapter we introduce the modern field of child and adolescent development. We define some basic concepts of developmental psychology, examine the field’s history, and identify some of the core issues in the discipline. We also examine some methods of collecting data and research designs with children and adolescents, and discuss the role of theories in developmental psychology.

The meaning of motivation is discussed. Focus is given to what should be the most important desired goal in any supplier’s channel systems, specifically, delighting targeted end-customers. An evaluation is then made of how goal-directed behaviors in the firm’s channels can contribute. Valued outcomes that can result from the performance of the right goal-directed behaviors are discussed at both the employee and channel member levels. Why recruitment, hiring, and selection of employees are so critical to channel motivation is emphasized. Next, an examination is made of how effective monitoring and performance appraisal can influence channel motivation. Finally, the major theories of motivation are summarized.

The complexities of human decision-making have been utilised in the advertising and marketing industry. One such way is through cognitive bias; a systematic pattern in thought processes often based on error or unconscious judgement. Advertisers often research the general views and beliefs of their target population, and tailor their advertising to confirm these viewpoints. From a biological perspective, it is not clear why humans possess this ability in cognitive bias; some suggest it may be beneficial in social advancement. The existence of cognitive bias may lead us to question if we have free will – whether we have complete conscious control over our actions. It is established that many decisions are unconscious, but we do also have the capacity to stop automatic behaviours, so we may argue this means we do have free will.

Our attention then turns to behaviourally based approaches to performance measurement involving the ‘rating’ (i.e. numerical scoring) of observable behaviours. By definition, behaviour is individual in nature, although multiple people may be involved in providing information on a given individual’s work behaviour. Here, we also consider the various sources of behavioural information, as well as how behavioural measurement can be implemented in order to shape employee behaviour in practice.We then explore the concepts and methods involved in the competency-based approach; an approach that, while also using behavioural measurement and information, is focused on using behavioural proxies to measure deep/submerged competencies that are assumed to predict high performance. Returning to points introduced in chapter 2, the final section provides practical insights regarding how results-based and behaviourally based measurement can be applied to support strategic alignment and psychological engagement. ‘Reality check’ inclusions invite you to consider how the practices covered in the chapter connect with each of these two overarching themes.

This chapter describes how the behavior of biomaterials under different operating conditions is assessed for safety and efficacy during the medical device design process. The intrinsic properties of biomaterials are evaluated for various requirements such as their mechanical integrity and their reactions to their immediate environment. A selection of standard testing methods to predict the behavior of materials under different conditions are discussed in this chapter.

This chapter discusses the fundamentals of tissue engineering and the different cell types that are pertinent to this field. Typical scaffold fabrication techniques as well as common methods used to evaluate scaffolds, cell growing on scaffolds, and neo-tissue are also presented.

Metals used for medical devices and their properties are discussed in this chapter. Phase diagrams for each metal are also included to help students understand the importance of temperature and its role in determining a specific phase and structure.