Thirty years after the European Commission requested Robert Pennington to produce a draft directive, Directive 2004/25/EC on Takeover Bids was published. This chapter examines the Commission’s various proposals during this time and the manner in which both the nature of the Directive and its provisions changed. It analyses the Commission’s 1989 and 1997 proposals and Council’s 2000 Common Position focusing on the provisions that dealt with the General Principles, the supervisory authorities, board neutrality and the mandatory bid. It describes the subsequent conciliation process and the compromises reached in order to arrive in June 2001 at an approved text. Having recounted the dramatic rejection of this proposal by a tied vote in Parliament in July 2001, the chapter examines the role of the High Level Group of Company Law Experts in restarting the process and its introduction of the ‘breakthrough rule’. It then explores the Commission’s 2002 Proposal and the intense negotiations, lobbying and political manoeuvring in 2003 that led to a further compromise text in November 2003. The chapter concludes by noting the unenthusiastic reception from Member States and commentators and the obvious disappointment of the Commission at what it perceived as a watered-down proposal.

This chapter offers a description of the method. Elaborating on the tradition of adda, the chapter explains its significance within post-colonial thought and life in India. It then explains how adda is shaped as a method in the book by drawing on and joining insights from the works of scholars who are located within the disciplines of law and/or the humanities. The chapter provides a detailed description of how diverse scholarly works of post-colonial, feminist and jurisprudential thought are brought together and then enacted as field research for this book.

This chapter discusses both motivations and choice mechanisms that underly how people make strategic choices. It lists multiple areas where our understanding could benefit from closer study. About the early work by Tversky and Kahneman on framing (i.e., the dependence of human choice behavior on different presentations of what to rational agents should be irrelevant factors), it concludes that one must make a choice between normative adequacy and descriptive accuracy. Concerning recent work on reciprocity, it argues that players’ reactions to, for instance, kind acts may lead to volatile behavior in settings with noise, whereas reciprocity toward perceived kind types can be more forgiving and result in more stable reciprocal relations.

A large share of individuals deviates from self-interested behavior in many paradigmatic games, but in many other strategic situations almost all individuals behave in a self-interested manner. Models with heterogeneous social preferences provide a unifying understanding for these seemingly contradictory facts by focusing on the interaction between agents with other-regarding and selfish preferences. This focus explains why and when selfish agents behave as if they were other-regarding, as well as to why and when other-regarding agents behave as if they were selfish. This focus also helps understand (1) the importance of seemingly irrelevant institutional details, (2) the role of contractual incompleteness for the behavioral relevance of social preferences, (3) the role of social preferences for the prevalence of contractual incompleteness, and (4) why social preferences are an important component in explaining key characteristics of the employment relation. More recent evidence suggests that the empirical distribution of social preferences can be parsimoniously characterized by a small number of preference types which also have out-of-sample predictive power for important behaviors such as the demand for politically enforced redistribution.

Solidarity is generally emphasized as a social good, particularly by international lawyers keen to stress its integrative function for the international community. This chapter will explore the possibility that solidarity might, on the contrary, occasionally be unwelcome, understood as both objectively and subjectively undesirable. Solidarity constructs certain social bonds through “imaginaries of solidarity” (who one imagines oneself to be in solidarity with) in ways that may be problematic. The chapter will examine different sites of international solidarity, including the inter-state and the transnational. It will distinguish between solidarity that is unwelcome on account of its effects (when solidarity actually makes things worse), on account of who it is offered by (the “intuitu personae” of solidarity), and on account of the burden of gratitude it creates (as part of an economy of gift and counter-gift). Overall, the chapter will refocus attention away from obligations to provide solidarity in favor of a more nuanced appreciation that not all solidarity is equally opportune. It also hopes to be a contribution to understanding what might be welcome solidarity based on a renewed understanding of its non-welcome variant.

To date, there is no universally accepted anatomical structural map of the human prefrontal cortex. Ongoing research attempts to uncover the complexities of how networks within the prefrontal cortex, and connecting the prefrontal cortex to other regions across the brain, are structured in detail. Tract tracing studies in rats have revealed that on a broad scale, prefrontal cortex connectivity is consistent with what would be expected based on other cortical regions; that it is comprised of topographically ordered reciprocal connections. However, evidence shows that when visualised on a finer scale, there is more complexity to this structure, that connections appear to move in opposing directions and follow a gradient from anterior to posterior in terms of reciprocity. Further, physiological evidence from humans indicates this gradient of connectivity is replicated on a functional level.

The human brain can be divided by both structure and function. Brodmann maps provide a useful way of organising the complex cortical structure based on cytoarchitecture. The basic architecture of the prefrontal cortex shows nothing substantially different to other cortical regions we have a clearer understanding of. However, it remains clear that there must be something anatomically different in the prefrontal cortex for it to be able to carry out such complex functions. Despite vast differences in the functionality of brain regions, topographic connectivity is considered a hallmark feature of cortical structure. However, relatively recent research evidence shows there may be more complexity to the connectivity pattern in the prefrontal cortex when viewed on a fine scale.

This chapter reviews the main concepts of electromagnetic theory relevant for the understanding of this textbook. Based on Maxwell’s equations, we derive the wave equation and discuss homogeneous solutions, such as plane waves and evanescent waves. We derive the boundary conditions at interfaces between homogeneous media and the Fresnel reflection and transmission coefficients. We discuss energy conservation, causality, and reciprocity of electromagnetic fields. Point response functions are introduced (Green functions) in order to derive the inhomogeneous solution of the wave equation. The chapter concludes with the angular spectrum representation, a framework that allows arbitrary fields to be described as a superposition of plane and evanescent waves.

The Bresciani case is one of a group of early cases in which the legal effect of Community agreements, and their nature as a source of law, was considered. This chapter explores the way in which the specific context of the Bresciani case, the trade relations established by the Yaoundé Conventions between the Community and some of its former colonies, influenced the Court’s presentation of direct effect in Bresciani itself and raised questions about the relationship between direct effect and the reciprocal (or non-reciprocal) nature of a trade agreement, in particular those founded on relationships of integration with the EU. The type of non-reciprocity found in the Yaoundé Conventions, established in Bresciani to be compatible with direct effect, is no longer a feature of EU trade agreements, but the EU-centricity of Yaoundé is a continuing characteristic of agreements based on integration with the EU model. The postcolonial context specific to Yaoundé becomes part of the broader legal context of these integration-led agreements, helping to clarify the part played by reciprocity in interpreting the EU’s international relationships.

1. In this story, the researcher deals with expectations and preconceptions about what will be happening during her data-gathering. How can preconceptions stop us from really listening to stories? 2. Storytelling is not only about the stories being told. How can ‘doing things together’ be a form of conversation or storytelling? 3. In what way would you say the storyteller has changed her expectations towards storytelling, after her meeting with the old lady?

Hume’s critique and English revulsion at the French Revolution dampened interest in social contract theorizing. The rise of utilitarianism was another factor. The cause of a universal franchise was taken up by Jeremy Bentham, a founding utilitarian who was dismissive of the social contract idea as an “anarchical fallacy.” The Chartists, who demanded universal manhood suffrage, held up both Bentham and Tom Paine as heroes. The Reform Act of 1832 expanded the power of the propertied in the burgeoning English manufacturing centers. The reformed Parliament passed the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834, which introduced the hated workhouse system. The Chartists’ million-plus petition for universal manhood suffrage was finally received by Parliament, but ignored. John Stuart Mill, another utilitarian, dismissed Locke’s theory as a fiction but found a truth in the social-contract idea: a principle of reciprocity. Reciprocity requires government to benefit all. Mill advocated votes for women and an expanded electorate but retention of the property qualification until workers could be educated sufficiently not to vote for unwise laws favoring their class. As a safeguard, he proposed plural votes for the educated. On the European continent the social contract tradition succumbed to the idealism of Hegel and the materialism of Marx.