Six types of shock wave interference resulting from the impingement of an incident shock on a bow shock are revisited by examining the sub-types that arise between the canonical types. Several new sub-types are predicted based on the theories of weak shock reflection and double-wedge shock interference, and verified via numerical simulations. Two additional types, Type IIw and Type IIs, are identified between Type II and Type III, whereas a Type Vw emerges between Type IV and Type V. These types originate from the transformation of the Mach reflection at the triple point, which evolves through weak shock reflections (von Neumann reflection, Vasilev reflection, Guderley reflection) before disappearing. The transition from Type III to Type IV is further shown to mirror sequences of double-wedge shock interference. Two additional types (Type IIIb and Type IVt) are found. Meanwhile, it is found that under large incoming flow Mach number ($M_0$ = 5), Types III, IV and their sub-types dominate, whereas Type II is absent; under small incoming flow Mach number ($M_0$ = 2.5), Types III and IV vanish and a modified Type Va emerges. This study adds seven new sub-types to the existing six types of shock interference. These work extend the classical six types of shock interferences into six-plus shock interference, a picture that shed new insight into shock interference.

High-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) is a non-invasive alternative to traditional surgery for detection and treatment. When HIFU targets a specific area, ultrasonic cavitation occurs with mechanical stress, causing tissue damage, a process that is significantly influenced by the surroundings. This paper presents a numerical study on the cavitation initiation and evolution mechanisms under focused ultrasonic waves considering the influence of a solid surface. Firstly, the dynamic property of focused ultrasonic waves and the generation of diffraction waves is explained based on the Huygens–Fresnel principle, and the prefocused phenomenon is analysed. Notably, the scenario considering the existence of a solid wall is discussed, with the corresponding cavitation clouds in a ‘tree-like’ pattern that can be generally divided into three or four subregions. The different initiation mechanisms of the near-wall cavitation clouds under a different relative distance between the theoretical focal point and the solid wall are discussed in detail. Finally, by considering the effects of the incident waves, scattered waves and their reflected waves on the solid wall, a wave superposition model is established that can clearly explain the distribution characteristics of the near-wall cavitation clouds with different modes. The understanding of the ultrasonic cavitation mechanism may support precise control in future HIFU applications.

The mixing mechanism within a single vortex has been a theoretical focus for decades, while it remains unclear especially under the variable-density (VD) scenario. This study investigates canonical single-vortex VD mixing in shock–bubble interactions (SBI) through high-resolution numerical simulations. Special attention is paid to examining the stretching dynamics and its impact on VD mixing within a single vortex, and this problem is investigated by quantitatively characterising the scalar dissipation rate (SDR), namely the mixing rate, and its time integral, referred to as mixedness. To study VD mixing, we first examine single-vortex passive-scalar (PS) mixing with the absence of a density difference. Mixing originates from diffusion and is further enhanced by the stretching dynamics. Under the axisymmetry and zero diffusion assumptions, the single-vortex stretching rate illustrates an algebraic growth of the length of scalar strips over time. By incorporating the diffusion process through the solution of the advection–diffusion equation along these stretched scalar strips, a PS mixing model for SDR is proposed based on the single-vortex algebraic stretching characteristic. Within this framework, density-gradient effects from two perspectives of the stretching dynamics and diffusion process are discovered to challenge the extension of the PS mixing model to VD mixing. First, the secondary baroclinic effect increases the VD stretching rate by the additional secondary baroclinic principal strain, while the algebraic stretching characteristic is still retained. Second, the density source effect, originating from the intrinsic nature of the density difference in the multi-component transport equation, suppresses the diffusion process. By accounting for both the secondary baroclinic effect on stretching and the density source effect on diffusion, a VD mixing model for SBI is further modified. This model establishes a quantitative relationship between the stretching dynamics and the evolution of the mixing rate and mixedness for single-vortex VD mixing over a broad range of Mach numbers. Furthermore, the essential role of the stretching dynamics on the mixing rate is demonstrated by the derived dependence of the time-averaged mixing rate $\overline {\langle \chi \rangle }$ on the Péclet number ${\textit{Pe}}$, which scales as $\overline {\langle \chi \rangle } \sim {\textit{Pe}}^{{2}/{3}}$.

An experimental investigation of separation bubble shaped control bumps for oblique shock wave–boundary-layer interactions was performed in two supersonic wind tunnel facilities at Mach 2.5 and 2, with incident shock deflection angles of $8^\circ$ and $12^\circ$, respectively, and momentum thickness Reynolds numbers of approximately $1.5 \times 10^4$. Shock control bumps were designed to replicate the time-averaged separation bubble shape, and were placed onto the floor in the separation location. This resulted in almost complete elimination of flow separation. There was also a marked improvement in the downstream boundary-layer state. A low-frequency bubble breathing oscillation was identified in the baseline interaction using high-speed shadowgraphy and particle image velocimetry measurements. This oscillation was strongly suppressed in the controlled interactions. Velocity fluctuations in the downstream boundary layer were also significantly reduced. We propose that the key mechanism by which flow separation is eliminated is by breaking down the overall pressure rise into smaller steps, each of which is below the separation threshold. A key feature is the bump crest expansion fan, located near to where the incident shock terminates, which negates the shock induced pressure jump. Thus, the precise bump geometry is critical for control efficacy and should be designed to manage these pressure rise steps as well as the expansion fan strength and location with respect to the incident shock wave. The length of the bump faces must also be sufficiently long for the boundary layer to recover between successive adverse pressure jumps.

Numerical simulations and theoretical analysis are conducted to investigate the Atwood-number dependence of perturbation evolution in a shocked heavy fluid layer. For layers without reverberating waves, a higher Atwood number of one interface significantly enhances its coupling effect on the perturbation growth at the opposite interface. A theoretical model incorporating the startup, linear and nonlinear stages is developed to predict the interface mixing width. Dimensionless formulae are derived, identifying eight distinct modulation regimes of multi-interface instability. When reverberating waves are present, the individual effects of the upstream ($A_1$) and downstream ($A_2$) Atwood numbers are examined. The model is further modified to account for additional reverberating waves required at higher $A_2$ values for accurate amplitude prediction. Both theory and simulations demonstrate that perturbation growth at one interface can be actively controlled by adjusting the Atwood number of the opposite interface. These findings provide insights for mitigating instabilities in applications such as inertial confinement fusion through appropriate material selection.

The compression waves/boundary layer interaction (CWsBLI) in high-speed inlets poses significant challenges for predicting flow separation, rendering traditional shock wave/boundary layer interaction (SWBLI) scaling laws inadequate due to unaccounted effects of the coverage range of compression waves. This study aims to establish a unified scaling framework for CWsBLIs and SWBLIs by proposing an equivalent interaction intensity. Experiments were conducted in a Mach 2.5 supersonic wind tunnel, employing schlieren imaging and pressure measurements to characterise flows induced by curved surfaces at two deflection angles ($10^{\circ }, 12^{\circ }$) and varying coverage ranges of compression waves ($d$). An equivalent transformation method was developed to convert the CWsBLI into an equivalent incident SWBLI (ISWBLI), with interaction intensity derived from pressure gradients considering the coverage range. Key results reveal a critical threshold based on the interaction length of ISWBLI ($L_{\textit{single}}$): when $d \leq L_{\textit{single}}$, the interaction scale remains comparable to ISWBLI; when $d \gt L_{\textit{single}}$, the weakened adverse pressure gradient leads to a reduction in the length scale. The proposed scaling framework unifies the CWsBLIs and SWBLIs, achieving better data collapse compared to the existing methods. This work advances our understanding of complex waves/boundary layer interactions, and provides a prediction method for the length scales of CWsBLIs.

By deriving the Euler equations and Rankine–Hugoniot equations in the orthogonal frame field of the shock surface, the three-dimensional curved shock theory based on orthogonal frame of shock surface (3D-CST-boos) is established. In steady flow, this theory can be applied to three-dimensional (3-D) shocks without constraints on the incoming flow conditions. The derived equations elucidate the relationship between the first-order gradients of the preshock and postshock flow parameters and the geometric properties (curvature) of the 3-D curved shock. The correctness of 3D-CST-boos is verified for two-dimensional plane shocks and axisymmetric shocks. The analysis is then extended to the flow patterns of 3-D elliptical convex/concave shocks. Variations in the flow field behind a 3-D elliptical convex shock are explained based on different incoming flow conditions. Simultaneously, the fundamental mechanics underlying the differences between the flow fields of elliptical concave shocks and axisymmetric concave shocks are revealed using 3D-CST-boos. Finally, a concise analysis of the first-order flow parameters is presented for more complex 3-D shocks, including saddle-shaped shocks and cubic surface shocks.

This work investigates the Richtmyer–Meshkov instability (RMI) at gas/viscoelastic interfaces with an initial single-mode perturbation both experimentally and theoretically. By systematically varying the compositions and concentrations of hydrogels, a series of viscoelastic materials with tuneable mechanical properties is created, spanning from highly viscous to predominantly elastic. Following shock impact, the interface exhibits two distinct types of perturbations: small-amplitude, short-wavelength perturbations inherited from initial single-mode condition, and large-amplitude, long-wavelength perturbations arising from viscous effects. For hydrogels with high loss factors, viscosity dominates the interface dynamics, leading to pronounced V-shaped deformation of the entire interface accompanied by a rapid decay of the initial single-mode perturbation. In contrast, for hydrogels with low loss factors, elasticity plays a prominent role, leading to sustained oscillations of the single-mode perturbation. By employing the Maxwell model to simultaneously incorporate both viscous and elastic effects, a comprehensive linear theory for RMI at gas/viscoelastic interfaces is developed, which shows good agreement with experimental results in the early stages. Although deviations arise at later times due to factors such as the shear-thickening feature of hydrogels and three-dimensional effects, the model well reproduces the oscillation behaviour of single-mode perturbations. In particular, it effectively captures the trend that increasing elasticity reduces both oscillation period and amplitude, providing key insights into the role of material properties in interface dynamics.

Shock trains compress incoming supersonic flow through a series of shock wave/turbulent boundary layer interactions (STBLIs) that occur in rapid streamwise succession. In this work, the global flow changes across the entire turbulent shock train are analysed as the confluence of local changes imparted by individual STBLIs. For this purpose, wall-resolved large eddy simulations are used on a constant area, back-pressured channel configuration with an entry Mach number of 2.0. Local changes due to individual STBLIs are evaluated in terms of deviations from incoming, near-equilibrium boundary layers, by systematically examining properties of the mean flow structure and turbulent statistics. The first STBLI in the train induces a strongly separated region, which interrupts inner layer dynamics and incites wall-normal deflection of turbulent structures, leading to prominent outer layer Reynolds stress amplification and related transport phenomena. Downstream of the first STBLI, the thickened, turbulent wall layer repeatedly interacts with subsequent shock waves in the train, resulting in cyclic attenuation and amplification of turbulent stresses, localised incipient separations and variations in mean momentum flux gradients. Decreases in mean Mach number along the shock train result in downstream shocks weakening to the point that interactions with the turbulent boundary layer impart negligible changes on the local flow. Consequently, after a sufficient streamwise extent, the boundary layers asymptote towards a new equilibrium state, thus recovering certain classical properties of near-wall turbulence. Among the features that reappear are a self-similar, adverse pressure gradient velocity profile and the restoration of the autonomous roller-streak cycle.

Shock-tube experiments are conducted to investigate the Atwood-number dependence of hydrodynamic instability induced by a strong shock with a Mach number exceeding 3.0. The compressible linear theory performs reliably under varying compressibility conditions. In contrast, the impulsive model significantly loses predictive accuracy at high shock intensities and Atwood numbers ($A_t$), particularly when specific heat ratio differences across the interface are pronounced. To address this limitation, we propose a modified impulsive model that offers favourable predictions over a wide range of compressibility conditions while retaining practical simplicity. In the nonlinear regime, increasing $A_t$ enhances both the shock-proximity and secondary-compression effects, which suppress bubble growth at early and late stages, respectively. Meanwhile, spike growth is promoted by the spike-acceleration and shock-proximity mechanisms. Several models reproduce spike growth across a wide range of $A_t$, whether physical or incidental. In contrast, no models reliably describe bubble evolution under all $A_t$ conditions, primarily due to neglecting compressibility effects that persist into the nonlinear regime. Building on these insights, we develop an empirical model that effectively captures bubble evolution over a wide $A_t$ range. Modal evolution is further shown to be strongly affected by compressibility-induced variations in interface morphology. The effect is particularly pronounced at moderate to high $A_t$, where it suppresses the fundamental mode growth while promoting higher-order harmonic generation.

We investigate the evolution of an external particle jet in a dense particle bed subjected to a radially divergent air-blast. Both random and single-mode perturbations are considered. By analysing the particle dynamics, we show that the Rayleigh–Taylor instability (RTI), the Richtmyer–Meshkov instability (RMI) and large particle inertia contribute to the formation of the external jet. The external particle jet exhibits a spike-like structure at its top and a bubble-like structure near its bottom. As the expanding particle bed lowers the internal gas pressure, particles near the bubble experience strong inward coupling forces and undergo RTI with variable acceleration. Meanwhile, particles in the spike experience weak gas–particle coupling and collision forces due to large particle inertia and low particle volume fraction, respectively. Consequently, the particles in the spike retain a nearly constant velocity, in contrast to the accelerating spikes observed in cylindrical RTI. To investigate the contributions of RMI to the particle jet growth, we track the trough-near particles in the single-mode perturbation case. It is revealed that the trough-near particles accelerate under the perturbation-induced pressure gradient, overtaking the crest-near particles and inducing phase inversion, thereby resulting in an increase in jet length. We establish a linear-growth model for the jet length increment, similar to the planar Richtmyer–Meshkov impulsive model. Combined with the jet-length-increment model, we propose an external-particle-jet-length model that is consistent with both numerical and experimental results for diverse initial gas pocket central pressures and particle bed thicknesses.

The evolution mechanisms and suppression strategy of the Richtmyer–Meshkov instability (RMI) at heavy–light interfaces with varying Atwood numbers accelerated by two co-propagating shock waves are investigated through theoretical analysis and experimental evaluation. Existing models describing the complete evolution of once-shocked interfaces and the linear growth of twice-shocked interfaces are examined across low, moderate and high Atwood number regimes, and further refined based on detailed analyses of their limitations. Furthermore, an analytical model for describing the complete evolution of a twice-shocked interface (DS model) is developed through a comprehensive consideration of the shock-compression, start-up, linear and weakly nonlinear evolution processes. The combination of the refined models and DS model enables, for the first time, an accurate prediction of the complete evolution of interfaces subjected to two co-propagating shock waves. Building upon this, the parameter conditions required to manipulate the RMI with varying Atwood numbers are identified. Verification experiments confirm that suppressing the RMI growth at interfaces with various Atwood numbers via a same-side reshock is feasible and predictable. The present study may shed some light on strategies to suppress hydrodynamic instabilities in inertial confinement fusion through integrated adjustment of material densities and shock timings.

This study employs three-dimensional particle-resolved simulations of planar shocks passing through a suspension of stationary solid particles to study wake-induced gas-phase velocity fluctuations, termed pseudo-turbulence. Strong coupling through interphase momentum and energy exchange generates unsteady wakes and shocklets in the interstitial space between particles. A Helmholtz decomposition of the velocity field shows that the majority of pseudo-turbulence is contained in the solenoidal component from particle wakes, whereas the dilatational component corresponds to the downstream edge of the particle curtain where the flow chokes. One-dimensional phase-averaged statistics of pseudo-turbulent kinetic energy (PTKE) are quantified at various stages of flow development. Reduction in PTKE is observed with increasing shock Mach number due to decreased production, consistent with single-phase compressible turbulence. The anisotropy in Reynolds stresses is found to be relatively constant through the curtain and consistent over all the conditions simulated. Analysis of the budget of PTKE shows that the majority of turbulence is produced through drag and balanced by viscous dissipation. The energy spectra of the streamwise gas-phase velocity fluctuations reveal an inertial subrange that begins at the mean interparticle spacing and decays with a power law of $-5/3$ and steepens to $-3$ at scales much smaller than the particle diameter. A two-equation model is proposed for PTKE and its dissipation. The model is implemented within a hyperbolic Eulerian-based two-fluid model and shows excellent agreement with the particle-resolved simulations.

Aerothermal issues in hypersonic transitional swept shock wave/boundary-layer interactions (SBLIs) are critical for the structural safety of high-speed vehicles but remain poorly understood. In this work, previously scarce, high-resolution heat transfer distributions of the hypersonic transitional swept SBLIs, are obtained from fast-responding temperature-sensitive paint (fast TSP) measurements. A series of $34^\circ$ compression ramps with sweep angles ranging from $0^\circ$ to $45^\circ$ are tested in a Mach 12.1 shock tunnel, with a unit Reynolds number of 3.0 $\times$ 10$^{6}$ m$^{-1}$. The fast TSP provides a global view of the three-dimensional aerothermal effects on the ramps, allowing in-depth analysis on the sweep effects and the symmetry of heat transfer. The time-averaged results reveal that the heat flux peak near reattachment shifts upstream with decreasing amplitude as the sweep angle increases, and a second peak emerges in the $45^\circ$ swept ramp due to a type V shock–shock interaction. Downstream of reattachment, the heat flux streaks induced by Görtler-like vortices weaken with increasing sweep angle, whereas their dominant projected wavelengths show little dependence on sweep angle or spanwise location. Away from the ramp’s leading side, the transition onset of the reattached boundary layer gradually approaches the reattachment point. Finally, a general quasi-conical aerothermal symmetry is identified upstream of reattachment, although spanwise variations in transition onset, shock–shock interaction and heat flux streaks are found to disrupt this symmetry downstream of reattachment with varying degrees.

This study presents an analytical advancement in predicting the growth rate of perturbation amplitude in two-dimensional non-standard Richtmyer–Meshkov instability (RMI), driven by the interaction of a first-phase rippled shock wave at moderate Mach number with a heavy–light interface. We extend the irrotational model to encompass non-standard RMI scenarios, establishing a generalised framework validated through numerical simulations. Distinct from previous models, our model is free of empirical coefficients, and demonstrates superior accuracy across diverse perturbation configurations and Mach numbers. The analyses reveal the fundamental disparity of non-standard RMI from classical RMI: the vorticity deposition mechanism in non-standard RMI arises not only from normal pressure gradients at the shock front but crucially from tangential pressure gradients behind the shock wave. The asymptotic circulations are also well predicted by our model. Moreover, the relationship of the amplitudes between sinusoidal shock and perturbed interface is derived based on the model to realise the freeze-out of interface amplitude. The initial fundamental mode’s amplitude growth is frozen well, and the mixing width is greatly suppressed.

Hysteresis in the transition between regular reflection (RR) and Mach reflection (MR) has been predicted theoretically and numerically for decades, yet successful experimental demonstrations have remained limited to wedge-angle-variation-induced hysteresis. This work presents the first successful experimental demonstration of Mach-number-variation-induced hysteresis. Utilising a newly developed continuously variable Mach 5–8 wind-tunnel nozzle, Mach-sweep experiments were conducted on a pair of wedges at three different angles ($25^{\circ }$, $27^{\circ }$ and $28^{\circ }$). A stable RR was first established at Mach 7 within the dual-solution domain for each angle, and then the Mach number was decreased to 5. For the $27^{\circ }$ and $28^{\circ }$ cases, transition from RR to MR was observed at Mach 5.3 and 5.9, respectively, during the downward Mach sweep, and the MR state persisted throughout the upward sweep back to Mach 7. During the $25^{\circ }$ case, a stable RR was maintained throughout the entire Mach sweep, prompting further experiments into the effect of free-stream disturbances on the stability of the RR state. Preliminary results revealed a free-stream-disturbance-induced hysteresis and that the RR state is metastable with potential stochastic behaviour.

The Richtmyer–Meshkov instability (RMI) develops when a planar shock front hits a rippled contact surface separating two different fluids. After the incident shock refraction, a transmitted shock is always formed and another shock or a rarefaction is reflected back. The pressure/entropy/vorticity fields generated by the rippled wavefronts are responsible of the generation of hydrodynamic perturbations in both fluids. In linear theory, the contact surface ripple reaches an asymptotic normal velocity which is dependent on the incident shock Mach number, fluid density ratio and compressibilities. In this work we only deal with the situations in which a shock is reflected. Our main goal is to show an explicit, closed form expression of the asymptotic linear velocity of the corrugation at the contact surface, valid for arbitrary Mach number, fluid compressibilities and pre-shock density ratio. An explicit analytical formula (closed form expression) is presented that works quite well in both limits: weak and strong incident shocks. The new formula is obtained by approximating the contact surface by a rigid piston. This work is a natural continuation of J. G. Wouchuk (2001 Phys. Rev. E vol. 63, p. 056303) and J. G. Wouchuk (2025 Phys. Rev. E vol. 111, p. 035102). It is shown here that a rigid piston approximation (RPA) works quite well in the general case, giving reasonable agreement with existing simulations, previous analytical models and experiments. An estimate of the relative error incurred because of the RPA is shown as a function of the incident shock Mach number $M_i$ and ratio of $\gamma $ values at the contact surface. The limits of validity of this approximation are also discussed. The calculations shown here have been done with the scientific software Mathematica. The files used to do these calculations can be retrieved as Supplemental Files to this article.

The propagation of detonations in a non-uniform mixture exhibits notable distinctions from that in a uniform mixture. This study first delves into the analytical analysis of the one-dimensional shock transmission problem and the two-dimensional shock propagation in a mixture with temperature non-uniformity. Additionally, the research extends to the numerical simulation of the propagation of shocks and detonations, building upon the insights garnered from the analytical analysis. The numerical results indicate that introducing a temperature interface in a non-uniform gas creates a discrete flow field and wavefront, resulting in oblique shocks that connect hot and cold layers. A competitive mechanism between the transverse waves and non-uniformity is responsible for the detonation propagation. The temperature amplitude tends to inhibit the propagation of transverse waves. In contrast, the wavelengths primarily affect the spacing and strength of these transverse waves, especially during the early stages of propagation. In a Zel’Dovich–von Neumann–Döring detonation, the non-uniformities distort the detonation front, creating transverse wave spacings comparable to the wavelength and reducing the front velocity. However, the detonation can recover its Chapman–Jouguet velocity and approach a steady states as intrinsic instabilities come into play. In the steady state, the cell sizes are found to be determined by the temperature amplitude. When the temperature amplitude is sufficiently high, the detonation cells effectively disappear.

For hypersonic inlets, buzz is a self-sustained oscillatory flow characterised by strong nonlinear and unsteady behaviour. Our recent study shows that, unlike conventional alterations in flow conditions at the inlet entrance or exit, flexible lip deformation is a newly identified trigger for buzz. However, the mechanism by which this fluid–structure interaction (FSI) behaviour induces buzz remains unclear. To clarify how FSI acts as a dominant factor in triggering flow instability leading to buzz, this study investigates a more general flexible plate model within the inlet. The results show that the plate FSI introduces a prolonged instability accumulation process for buzz evolution, resulting in a ‘gradual-onset’ characteristic differing from previous studies. During this process, plate FSI amplifies downstream flow oscillations while accumulating unstable energy. Eventually, the excessive unstable energy causes the shock train to destabilise and be disgorged from the inlet, initiating a complete instability process dominated by buzz. Notably, buzz induced by plate FSI exhibits unsteady characteristics similar to those observed in rigid inlets. Therefore, as an internal self-excited disturbance source, plate FSI produces relatively weaker disturbances than conventional flow modifications, but exhibits highly persistent accumulation effects and distinct multistage characteristics. This study reveals the buzz evolution mechanism under plate FSI, providing new insights into flow instability in hypersonic inlets.

Transonic buffet presents time-dependent aerodynamic characteristics associated with shock, turbulent boundary layer and their interactions. Despite strong nonlinearities and a large degree of freedom, there exists a dominant dynamic pattern of a buffet cycle, suggesting the low dimensionality of transonic buffet phenomena. This study seeks a low-dimensional representation of transonic airfoil buffet at a high Reynolds number with machine learning. Wall-modelled large-eddy simulations of flow over the OAT15A supercritical airfoil at two Mach numbers, $M_\infty = 0.715$ and 0.730, respectively producing non-buffet and buffet conditions, at a chord-based Reynolds number of ${Re} = 3\times 10^6$ are performed to generate the present datasets. We find that the low-dimensional nature of transonic airfoil buffet can be extracted as a sole three-dimensional latent representation through lift-augmented autoencoder compression. The current low-order representation not only describes the shock movement but also captures the moment when the separation occurs near the trailing edge in a low-order manner. We further show that it is possible to perform sensor-based reconstruction through the present low-dimensional expression while identifying the sensitivity with respect to aerodynamic responses. The present model trained at ${Re} = 3\times 10^6$ is lastly evaluated at the level of a real aircraft operation of ${Re} = 3\times 10^7$, exhibiting that the phase dynamics of lift is reasonably estimated from sparse sensors. The current study may provide a foundation towards data-driven real-time analysis of transonic buffet conditions under aircraft operation.