In this chapter, we provide an overview of how second languages (L2s) are acquired, processed and represented in the brain. We begin by reviewing experimental methods, along with relevant studies employing them, with a particular focus on fMRI and EEG, two metabolic and electrophysiological measures that elucidate our knowledge of multiple languages in one brain. We then discuss a few moderating effects of L2 acquisition along with a dialogue of how multilinguals process structure and meaning as elaborated in key theories. Finally, we elaborate on how research on multiple memory systems can possibly shed light on the acquisition and teaching of L2s in the classroom with respect to the effectiveness of the explicit presentation of grammar rules and feedback. We conclude by identifying research topics that are shaping ongoing work in bilingual processing and sparking new dialogues that have the potential to significantly advance the field.

This chapter begins with a brief overview of the historical connections between the fields of second language acquisition (SLA) and computer-assisted language learning (CALL). We trace the development of this field from its primarily cognitive origins to the social turn in the early 2000s and to the affective turn, with its more recent emphasis on the learner and teacher’s psychology. The latter has led to an increased recognition of the roles of individual learner differences in second and foreign language learning and the investigation of technology on learners’ motivation, emotions and self-regulation of learning both inside and outside of the classroom. The complex interaction between learner-internal and -external factors (including the mediating role of technology) has led to a view of language acquisition as a complex dynamic process, and this is increasingly evident in research on technology-mediated learning. In our synthesis, we classify recent developments into four distinctive, yet interrelated strands: technological developments, theoretical and conceptual developments, pedagogical developments, and methodological developments. In particular, we illustrate these developments with examples of technological and pedagogical innovations used for language learning such as Language MOOCs, augmented and virtual reality, big data, learning analytics and artificial intelligence.

Heritage language speakers are second language (L2) speakers of a sociopolitically majority language. Their native heritage language is a minority language which typically develops under linguistic pressure from the majority L2 and eventually becomes secondary and weaker than the L2. In the past decade, research on heritage language speakers has investigated the degree of acquisition of different aspects of the heritage grammar and how the process and outcome of heritage language acquisition are similar to and different from adult L2 acquisition. Advances in the acquisition of heritage languages have contributed significantly to inform key questions in L2 acquisition. This chapter discusses the latest research on how L2 learners’ and heritage speakers’ exposure and use of the L2 and L1 affect the processing and acquisition the L2 and the heritage language and points to areas in need of further research.

Roughly half of the world’s population are bilingual, that is, around four billion people. Worldwide, language learning is on the rise, driven by factors such as immigration, globalization, and an increased awareness of the value of learning another language. In this chapter we explain how we learn languages in addition to our mother tongue, that is, the language we grew up speaking from early childhood. How is learning a second language different to learning a first? What are some of the challenges people face when learning another language? We explore issues around translation, and the creative inventions of sci-fi like the babel fish and the Tardis, versus the capabilities and limitations of AI. We take a look at unique cases of true (and fake) polyglot savants, and we revisit those who suddenly speak with another accent, or even in an entirely different language. We also see what science says about the considerable cognitive and social benefits of learning a new language.

This chapter argues that linguists should expand the data used in linguistics education to include second language data and that expanding linguistic education to include second language and multilingualism at its core would put the field of linguistics in a better position to bridge the gap between second language education programs and linguistics. It gives several arguments for including second language data in linguistics education: Second language data are natural language data and should be included in models of language, second language acquisition and first language acquisition share many characteristics, knowledge of second language acquisition will put graduates in a stronger position for academic jobs, and including second language data in linguistics education can promote an awareness of linguistic diversity and work toward a more inclusive field. It offers some suggestions for how to incorporate second language data into linguistics courses and a discusses some of the barriers to this proposal. It concludes with two examples of exercises which use second language data to reinforce basic linguistic concepts.

This chapter surveys the scholarship on linguistics in education and analyzes the status of linguistics in language education master’s programs. Using the National Center for Education Statistics’ Classification of Instructional Programs (CIP) system to define the data field, we searched the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System for institutions conferring degrees between 2011-2020 for CIP code 13.14, the designation for master’s programs in Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. From this list, we analyzed available curricula for both MA/MS TESOL degree and MA/MS in elementary, secondary, or adult education language teacher training. Considering programs across 255 institutions, we analyzed linguistics courses as required, elective, or not present. Results reveal that linguistics is integrated at variable rates. Focusing on four core subdisciplines, TESOL fares better: Introductory linguistics was required 69% of the time, sociolinguistics 41.5%, syntax/grammar 53%, and second language acquisition (SLA) 70%. A more dismal picture appears for the other language education group: Introductory linguistics was required 6% of the time, sociolinguistics 6%, syntax/grammar 4%, and SLA 12%. This study demonstrates that language teachers require more robust linguistics education to better equip them for serving language learners’ needs.

This introductory chapter provides the rationale for this topic and framing of the book. The strength and tools of linguistics can contribute greatly to teacher effectiveness in the second language classroom, yet the two professional realms have developed largely independently of one another. This chapter introduces the argument for strengthening the role of linguistics in second language study as well as establishing the place of second language data in linguistics inquiry and education, bringing together the two disciplines around the actual realities of language itself. It introduces the chapter content and flow of the book, the breadth represented in topics and authors, intended audience, special features of the chapters, and perspectives from second language acquisition to help bridge the gap between disciplines.

Variability in ultimate learning outcomes is a conspicuous trait of second language (L2) acquisition. After enumerating well-studied conditioning factors in L2 attainment, the present chapter identifies five for particular attention: working memory, attitudes, music background, genetic makeup, and age of acquisition. Along with detailing the factors’ individual roles in L2 attainment, we demonstrate inter-relationships between them. For example, the aptitude factor of working memory ability is subject to genetic variation and may decline over age of L2 learning. We examine variable outcomes from two distinct perspectives: magnitude (i.e., how the identified factors contribute to higher or lower levels of L2 attainment) and dispersion (i.e., how the factors contribute to greater or lesser variability of L2 attainment). Notably, later ages of L2 learning are associated with both lower L2 attainment levels and greater L2 attainment variability. In this vein, we consider the possibility that magnitudes and variability of L2 outcomes over age of learning may be isomorphic with working memory levels and dispersion over the lifespan. In addition, we underscore the transitory nature of individual-level L2 outcomes, which are subject to destabilization following shifts of dominance between the L1 (first language) and the L2.

Since the late 1990s, thousands of fMRI studies have been conducted on different aspects of language processing in the human brain. The earlier studies were generally devoted to first language or monolingual processing, but the field has continued to expand to include both studies of a single first language, and bi/multilingual language processing in the brain. A modest number of fMRI longitudinal studies of second language acquisition began to emerge over the past 13 years. The following analysis uses the findings of these BOLD fMRI longitudinal studies of second language acquisition, including comparison with cross-sectional studies of L2 acquisition, to make recommendations for enhancing the research design and empirical measurements to facilitate new methodologies and approaches. Conclusions include a discussion of the utility of longitudinal studies, elucidation of the theoretical foundation of dynamic modeling underlying individual user variation in L1/L2 language processing, inclusion of a broader array of imaging techniques (structural DTI, resting state fMRI and functional connectivity), and the importance of proficiency measurements and proficiency testing as a part of research design.

Automatic translation tools like Google Translate have improved immensely in recent years. Older translation technology selected the sentence that sounded more natural in the target language among multiple prospective word-by-word translations. Conversely, the current tools learn a sentence-level translation function from human translations. Although they are very useful, automatic translation tools don’t work equally well for every pair of languages and every genre and topic. For this reason, automatic translation didn’t yet make second language acquisition obsolete. Mastering English means being able to think in English rather than translating your thoughts from your native language. The language of our thoughts affects our word choice and grammatical constructions, so going through another language might result in incorrect or unnatural sentences. Choosing the right English words involves obstacles such as mispronunciation, malapropism, and inappropriate contexts.

This chapter firstly outlines the phonological structure of Gaelic and aspects of phonetic implementation. I then consider methods used so far in the study of Gaelic phonological acquisition and review work in this area. The journey of language acquisition is varied across different sectors of the Gaelic-speaking population, as well as individuals. For example, while some children acquire Gaelic and English virtually simultaneously in the home, other children acquire Gaelic sequentially through a form of immersion schooling known as Gaelic Medium Education (GME). Many lie somewhere on a simultaneous-sequential continuum. Adult acquirers of Gaelic are a hugely diverse population, which naturally leads to a range of differing outcomes in the acquisition of phonology. In this overview of the field, I consider the different factors associated with multilingual phonological acquisition, and how they have predicted or challenged results obtained from data-driven studies of Gaelic. The chapter ends with a discussion about the multiple future directions needed for research in this area, including larger studies of primary-aged populations, and more focus on universities as an important locus of adult language acquisition.

This chapter provides an up-to-date review of the literature on the phonetic and phonological patterns of Welsh and their development. While typically developing children’s acquisition constitutes a major component, it also discusses socio-phonetic variation and adult second language acquisition, thereby approaching Welsh speech development from a lifespan perspective. The chapter is structured in four major sections. The first section introduces the reader to the segmental and suprasegmental properties of the two main varieties of Welsh: Northern and Southern Welsh. Subsequently, the second section considers methodological aspects of studies on Welsh phonology, while the third section focuses on children’s development of Welsh speech patterns, starting with evidence from studies on early word productions before moving on to a discussion of consonant and consonant cluster acquisition in preschool and school-aged children. The section concludes with an account of developmental error patterns. The final major section then reviews the literature on the speech patterns of different groups of Welsh speakers and the role that extra-linguistic variables, such as sex/gender and language dominance, play in shaping these. Finally, studies on the Welsh accents of second language learners will be discussed. The chapter concludes with suggestions for future research.

The powerful pedagogical affordances of technologies enable new forms of learning that can serve contemporary pedagogies such as task-based language teaching (TBLT) in different educational contexts. Indeed, technology and TBLT mutually nurture one another as technology sets a natural and authentic context for the realization of the methodological principles of TBLT, and TBLT offers a rationale and pedagogical framework for the selection and use of technology. Given the unique learning potential of technology-mediated TBLT and the relative newness of the field, it is essential to advance this area to fulfill the fruitful interface between the two fields of TBLT and technology. This chapter presents how this fusion offers language learning opportunities that would otherwise be difficult to orchestrate in traditional classroom contexts. It then provides a brief review of recent work in this area, paving the way toward an outline of future research and practice directions in the implementation of technology-mediated TBLT.